New Page 1

LA GRAMMATICA DI ENGLISH GRATIS IN VERSIONE MOBILE   INFORMATIVA PRIVACY

  NUOVA SEZIONE ELINGUE

 

Selettore risorse   

   

 

                                         IL Metodo  |  Grammatica  |  RISPOSTE GRAMMATICALI  |  Multiblog  |  INSEGNARE AGLI ADULTI  |  INSEGNARE AI BAMBINI  |  AudioBooks  |  RISORSE SFiziosE  |  Articoli  |  Tips  | testi pAralleli  |  VIDEO SOTTOTITOLATI
                                                                                         ESERCIZI :   Serie 1 - 2 - 3  - 4 - 5  SERVIZI:   Pronunciatore di inglese - Dizionario - Convertitore IPA/UK - IPA/US - Convertitore di valute in lire ed euro                                              

 

 

WIKIBOOKS
DISPONIBILI
?????????

ART
- Great Painters
BUSINESS&LAW
- Accounting
- Fundamentals of Law
- Marketing
- Shorthand
CARS
- Concept Cars
GAMES&SPORT
- Videogames
- The World of Sports

COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY
- Blogs
- Free Software
- Google
- My Computer

- PHP Language and Applications
- Wikipedia
- Windows Vista

EDUCATION
- Education
LITERATURE
- Masterpieces of English Literature
LINGUISTICS
- American English

- English Dictionaries
- The English Language

MEDICINE
- Medical Emergencies
- The Theory of Memory
MUSIC&DANCE
- The Beatles
- Dances
- Microphones
- Musical Notation
- Music Instruments
SCIENCE
- Batteries
- Nanotechnology
LIFESTYLE
- Cosmetics
- Diets
- Vegetarianism and Veganism
TRADITIONS
- Christmas Traditions
NATURE
- Animals

- Fruits And Vegetables



ARTICLES IN THE BOOK

  1. Almond
  2. Anise
  3. Apple
  4. Apricot
  5. Asparagus
  6. Aubergine
  7. Avocado
  8. Azuki bean
  9. Bamboo shoot
  10. Barley
  11. Basil
  12. Beet
  13. Bell pepper
  14. Blackberry
  15. Black-eyed pea
  16. Black pepper
  17. Black salsify
  18. Blueberry
  19. Bran
  20. Brazilnut
  21. Breadfruit
  22. Broccoli
  23. Brussels sprout
  24. Bulgur
  25. Capsicum
  26. Carambola
  27. Caraway
  28. Cardamom
  29. Carrot
  30. Cashew
  31. Cauliflower
  32. Celery
  33. Cereal
  34. Cherry
  35. Chestnut
  36. Chickpea
  37. Chile pepper
  38. Citron
  39. Clementine
  40. Cocoa
  41. Coconut
  42. Coffee
  43. Coriander
  44. Couscous
  45. Cranberry
  46. Cucumber
  47. Cumin
  48. Date
  49. Dill
  50. Fennel
  51. Fenugreek
  52. Fig
  53. Garden cress
  54. Garlic
  55. Ginger
  56. Ginseng
  57. Globe Artichoke
  58. Gooseberry
  59. Grape
  60. Grapefruit
  61. Greengage
  62. Guava
  63. Haricot bean
  64. Hazelnut
  65. Juniper
  66. Kentucky coffeetree
  67. Khaki
  68. Kiwifruit
  69. Kumquat
  70. Leek
  71. Legume
  72. Lemon
  73. Lentil
  74. Lettuce
  75. Liquorice
  76. Lupin
  77. Lychee
  78. Macadamia
  79. Maize
  80. Mandarin
  81. Marjoram
  82. Melon
  83. Mentha
  84. Millet
  85. Mustard seed
  86. Nutmeg
  87. Oat
  88. Olive
  89. Onion
  90. Opium poppy
  91. Orange
  92. Oregano
  93. Parsley
  94. Parsnip
  95. Passion fruit
  96. Pea
  97. Peach
  98. Peanut
  99. Pear
  100. Pecan
  101. Peppermint
  102. Pineapple
  103. Pistachio
  104. Plant
  105. Plum
  106. Pomegranate
  107. Potato
  108. Pulse
  109. Pumpkin
  110. Radicchio
  111. Radish
  112. Raisin
  113. Rambutan
  114. Rapini
  115. Raspberry
  116. Redcurrant
  117. Rhubarb
  118. Rice
  119. Rosemary
  120. Runner bean
  121. Rye
  122. Salvia
  123. Semolina
  124. Sesame
  125. Shallot
  126. Sinapis
  127. Sorghum
  128. Soybean
  129. Spearmint
  130. Spinach
  131. Squash
  132. Strawberry
  133. Sugar cane
  134. Sunflower seed
  135. Sweet potato
  136. Tamarillo
  137. Tamarind
  138. Tangerine
  139. Thyme
  140. Tomato
  141. Turnip
  142. Vanilla
  143. Vicia faba
  144. Walnut
  145. Watercress
  146. Watermelon
  147. Wheat
  148. Wild rice
  149. Zucchini

 

 
CONDIZIONI DI USO DI QUESTO SITO
L'utente può utilizzare il nostro sito solo se comprende e accetta quanto segue:

  • Le risorse linguistiche gratuite presentate in questo sito si possono utilizzare esclusivamente per uso personale e non commerciale con tassativa esclusione di ogni condivisione comunque effettuata. Tutti i diritti sono riservati. La riproduzione anche parziale è vietata senza autorizzazione scritta.
  • Il nome del sito EnglishGratis è esclusivamente un marchio e un nome di dominio internet che fa riferimento alla disponibilità sul sito di un numero molto elevato di risorse gratuite e non implica dunque alcuna promessa di gratuità relativamente a prodotti e servizi nostri o di terze parti pubblicizzati a mezzo banner e link, o contrassegnati chiaramente come prodotti a pagamento (anche ma non solo con la menzione "Annuncio pubblicitario"), o comunque menzionati nelle pagine del sito ma non disponibili sulle pagine pubbliche, non protette da password, del sito stesso.
  • La pubblicità di terze parti è in questo momento affidata al servizio Google AdSense che sceglie secondo automatismi di carattere algoritmico gli annunci di terze parti che compariranno sul nostro sito e sui quali non abbiamo alcun modo di influire. Non siamo quindi responsabili del contenuto di questi annunci e delle eventuali affermazioni o promesse che in essi vengono fatte!
  • L'utente, inoltre, accetta di tenerci indenni da qualsiasi tipo di responsabilità per l'uso - ed eventuali conseguenze di esso - degli esercizi e delle informazioni linguistiche e grammaticali contenute sul siti. Le risposte grammaticali sono infatti improntate ad un criterio di praticità e pragmaticità più che ad una completezza ed esaustività che finirebbe per frastornare, per l'eccesso di informazione fornita, il nostro utente. La segnalazione di eventuali errori è gradita e darà luogo ad una immediata rettifica.

     

    ENGLISHGRATIS.COM è un sito personale di
    Roberto Casiraghi e Crystal Jones
    email: robertocasiraghi at iol punto it

    Roberto Casiraghi           
    INFORMATIVA SULLA PRIVACY              Crystal Jones


    Siti amici:  Lonweb Daisy Stories English4Life Scuolitalia
    Sito segnalato da INGLESE.IT

 
 



FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
This article is from:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soybean

All text is available under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License 

Soybean

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

 

The soybean (U.S. and UK) or soya bean (UK) (Glycine max) is a species of legume native to Eastern Asia. It is an annual plant that may vary in growth habit and height. It may grow prostrate, not growing higher than 20 cm (7.8 inches), or even stiffly erect up to 2 meters (6.5 feet) in height. The pods, stems, and leaves are covered with fine brown or gray pubescence. The leaves are trifoliate (sometimes with 5 leaflets), and the leaflets are 6-15 cm (2-6 inches) long and 2-7 cm (1-3 inches) broad; they fall before the seeds are mature. The small, inconspicuous, self-fertile flowers are borne in the axil of the leaf and are either white or purple. The fruit is a hairy pod that grows in clusters of 3-5, with each pod 3-8 cm (1-3 inches) long and usually containing 2-4 (rarely more) seeds 5-11 mm in diameter.

Like corn and some other crops of long domestication, the relationship of the modern soybean to wild-growing species can no longer be traced with any degree of certainty. It is a cultural variety (a cultigen) with a very large number of cultivars. However, it is known that the progenitor of the modern soybean was a vine-like plant, that grew prone on the ground.

Beans are classed as pulses whereas soybeans are classed as oilseeds. The word soy is derived from the Japanese word shoyu (soy sauce/soya sauce).

Physical characteristics

Soybeans occur in various sizes, and in several hull or seed coat colors, including black, brown, blue, yellow, and mottled. The hull of the mature bean is hard, water resistant, and protects the cotyledon and hypocotyl (or "germ") from damage. If the seed coat is cracked the seed will not germinate. The scar, visible on the seed coat, is called the hilum (colors include black, brown, buff, gray and yellow) and at one end of the hilum is the micropyle, or small opening in the seed coat which can allow the absorption of water.

It is a remarkable fact that seeds such as soybeans, containing very high levels of soy protein, can undergo desiccation yet survive and revive after water absorption. A.Carl Leopold, son of Aldo Leopold, set out twenty years ago to answer this very question at the Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research at Cornell University. Studying the survival of soybeans and corn he found each to have a range of soluble carbohydrates protecting the seed's cell viability.[1] Patents were awarded to him in the early 1990s on techniques for protecting "biological membranes" and proteins in the dry state.

Chemical composition of the seed

The oil and protein content together account for about 60% of dry soybeans by weight; protein at 40% and oil at 20%. The remainder consists of 35% carbohydrate and about 5% ash. Soybean cultivars comprise approximately 8% seed coat or hull, 90% cotyledons and 2% hypocotyl axis or germ.

The majority of soy protein is a relatively heat-stable storage protein. It is this heat-stability of the soy protein that enables soy food products requiring high temperature cooking, such as tofu, soymilk and textured vegetable protein (soy flour) to be made.

The principal soluble carbohydrates, saccharides, of mature soybeans are the disaccharide sucrose(range 2.5-8.2%), the trisaccharide raffinose( 0.1-1.0%) composed of one sucrose molecule connected to one molecule of galactose, and the tetrasaccharide stachyose(1.4 to 4.1%) composed of one sucrose connected to two molecules of galactose. While the oligosaccharides raffinose and stachyose protect the viability of the soybean seed from desiccation{see above section on physical characteristics} they are not digestible sugars and therefore contribute to flatulence and abdominal discomfort in humans and other monogastric animals. Undigested oligosaccharides are broken down in the intestine by native microbes producing gases such as carbon dioxide, hydrogen, nitrogen, methane, etc.

Since soluble soy carbohydrates are found mainly in the whey and are broken down during fermentation, soy concentrate, soy protein isolates, tofu, soy sauce, and sprouted soybeans are without flatus activity. On the other hand, there may be some beneficial effects to ingesting oligosaccharides such as raffinose and stachyose, namely, encouraging indigenous bifidobacteria in the colon against putrefactive bacteria.

The insoluble carbohydrates in soybeans consist of the complex polysaccharides cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectin. The majority of soybean carbohydrates can be classed as belonging to dietary fiber.

Cultivation

Varieties of soybeans are used for many purposes.
Varieties of soybeans are used for many purposes.

Soybeans are an important global crop, grown for oil and protein. The bulk of the crop is solvent extracted for vegetable oil and then defatted soy meal is used for animal feed. A very small proportion of the crop is consumed directly for food by humans. Soybean products, however, appear in a large variety of processed foods.

Soybeans have been a crucial crop in eastern Asia since long before written records, and they are still a major crop in China, Korea, and Japan today. Soy was not actually used as a food item until they discovered fermentation techniques around 2000 years ago. Prior to fermented products such as soy sauce, tempeh, natto, and miso, soy was considered sacred for its use in crop rotation as a method of fixing nitrogen. The plants would be plowed under to clear the field for food crops.[citation needed] Soy was first introduced to Europe in the early 1700s and the United States in 1765, where it was first grown for hay. Benjamin Franklin wrote a letter in 1770 mentioning sending soybeans home from England. Soybeans did not become an important crop outside of Asia until about 1910. In America, soy was considered an industrial product only and not utilized as a food prior to the 1920's.

Cultivation is successful in climates with hot summers, with optimum growing conditions in mean temperatures of 20 °C to 30 °C (68°F to 86°F); temperatures of below 20 °C and over 40 °C (68 °F, 104 °F) retard growth significantly. They can grow in a wide range of soils, with optimum growth in moist alluvial soils with a good organic content. Soybeans, like most legumes perform nitrogen fixation by establishing a symbiotic relationship with the bacterium Bradyrhizobium japonicum (syn. Rhizobium japonicum; Jordan 1982). However, for best results an inoculum of the correct strain of bacteria should be mixed with the soybean (or any legume) seed before planting. Modern crop cultivars generally reach a height of around 1 m (3 ft), and take between 80-120 days from sowing to harvesting.

Soybeans are native to southeast Asia, but 45 percent of the world's soybean area, and 55 percent of production, is in the United States. The U.S. produced 75 million metric tons of soybeans in 2000, of which more than one-third was exported. Other leading producers are Brazil, Argentina, China, and India.

Environmental groups, such as Greenpeace and the WWF, have reported that both soybean cultivation and the threat to increase soybean cultivation in Brazil is destroying huge areas of Amazon rainforest and encouraging deforestation. Besides destruction of the rainforest, it destroys unique biodiversity and causes a billion dollar's loss on technology from bionics revenue. American soil scientist, Dr. Andrew McClung, who first showed that the infertile Cerrado region of Brazil could grow soybeans, was awarded the 2006 World Food Prize on October 19,2006.[2]

The first research on soybeans in the United States was conducted by George Washington Carver at Tuskegee, Alabama, but he decided it was too exotic a crop for the poor black farmers of the South so he turned his attention to peanuts. Peanuts, soybeans, or other legume plants that would replenish the soil with nitrogen and minerals were planted for two years and then cotton on the third year. A two-year rotation system alternating maize instead is also a possibility.

Uses

Soybeans can be broadly classified as "vegetable" (garden) or field (oil) types. Vegetable types cook more easily, have a mild nutty flavor, better texture, are larger in size, higher in protein, and lower in oil than field types. Tofu and soymilk producers prefer the higher protein cultivars bred from vegetable soybeans originally brought to the United States in the late 1930s. The "garden" cultivars are generally not suitable for mechanical combine harvesting because they have a tendency for the pods to shatter on reaching maturity.

Among the legumes, the soybean, also classed as an oilseed, is pre-eminent for its high (38-45%) protein content as well as its high (20%) oil content. Soybeans are the leading agricultural export in the United States. The bulk of the soybean crop is grown for oil production, with the high-protein defatted and "toasted" soy meal used as livestock feed. A smaller percentage of soybeans are used directly for human consumption.

Soybeans may be boiled whole in their green pod and served with salt, under the Japanese name edamame (IPA pronunciation: [eda-maa-me]). Soybeans prepared this way are a popular local snack in Hawai'i, where, as in China, Japan, and Korea the bean and products made from the bean (miso, natto, tofu, douchi, doenjang, ganjang and others) are a popular part of the diet. In Korean cuisine, soybean sprouts (kongnamul (hangul:콩나물)) are also used in a variety of dishes.

The beans can be processed in a variety of ways. Common forms of soy (or soya) include soy meal, soy flour, "soy milk", tofu, textured vegetable protein (TVP, which is made into a wide variety of vegetarian foods, some of them intended to imitate meat), tempeh, soy lecithin and soybean oil. Soybeans are also the primary ingredient involved in the production of soy sauce (or shoyu).

Soybeans grow throughout Asia and North and South America.
Soybeans grow throughout Asia and North and South America.

Genetic Modification

Soybeans are one of the "biotech food" crops that are being genetically modified, and GMO soybeans are being used in an increasing number of products. Monsanto is the world's leader in genetically modified soy for the commercial market. In 1995, Monsanto introduced "Roundup Ready" (RR) soybeans that have had a complete copy of a gene plasmid from the bacteria, Agrobacterium sp. strain CP4, inserted, by means of a gene gun, into its genome that allows the transgenic plant to survive being sprayed by this non-selective, glyphosate-based herbicide. Roundup kills conventional soybeans. RR soybeans allow a farmer to reduce tillage or even to sow the seed directly into an unplowed field, known as 'no plow tillage', greatly reducing soil erosion.

In 1997, 81% of all soybeans cultivated for the commercial market were genetically modified. As with other "Roundup Ready" crops, concern is expressed over damage to biodiversity.[3]

Archer Daniels Midland (ADM) is among the largest processors of soybeans and soy products. ADM along with DOW, DuPont and Monsanto support the industry trade associations United Soybean Board (USB) and Soyfoods Association of North America (SANA). These trade associations have increased the consumption of soy products dramatically in recent years.

The dramatic increase is largely credited to the Food and Drug Administration's (FDA) approval of health claims for soy which very likely is unfounded (see below: #Reduce Cholesterol?). Since the bulk of the soy grown in the US is GMO variety the chief beneficiaries of the increase are the biotech seed companies. Dr. Jane E. Henney who was the FDA commissioner at the time, now sits on the board of biotech giant Astra Zeneca. Many top agency officials from the Bush Administration, have been under criticism for close ties to industry and possible financial conflicts of interest. The former USDA Secretary of Agriculture, Daniel Robert Glickman, also left to accept seats on the boards of soy related companies including Hain Foods.

From 2001 to 2004, food manufacturers in the US introduced over 1600 new foods with soy as an ingredient, averaging 400 new products per year, according to the Mintel’s Global New Products Database.

From 1992 to 2003, soyfoods sales have experienced a 15% compound annual growth rate, increasing from $300 million to $3.9 billion over 11 years, as new soyfood categories have been introduced, soyfoods have been repositioned in the market place, and new customers have selected soy for health and philosophical reasons. Dramatic growth followed the FDA approval of a health claim linking soy with heart disease reduction.

Oil

In processing soybeans for oil extraction and subsequent soy flour production, selection of high quality, sound, clean, dehulled yellow soybeans is very important. Soybeans having a dark colored seed coat, or even beans with a dark hilum will inadvertently leave dark specks in the flour, an undesirable factor when used in food products. All commercial soybeans in the United States are yellow or yellow brown.

To produce soybean oil, the soybeans are cracked, adjusted for moisture content, rolled into flakes and solvent-extracted with commercial hexane. The oil is then refined, blended for different applications, and sometimes hydrogenated. Soybean oils, both liquid and partially hydrogenated, are exported abroad, sold as "vegetable oil," or end up in a wide variety of processed foods. The remaining soybean husks are used mainly as animal feed.

The major unsaturated fatty acids in soybean oil triglycerides are linolenic acid,C18:3; linoleic acid, C-18:2; and oleic acid,C-18:1. Soybean oil has a relatively high proportion, 7-10%, of oxidation prone linolenic acid, which is an undesirable property for continuous service, such as in a restaurant. Two companies, Monsanto and DuPont/Bunge in 2004 introduced low linolenic, (C18:3; cis-9, cis-12, cis-15 octadecatrienoic acid) Roundup Ready soybeans: the former introduced a new soybean seed variety called "Vistive" and the latter Pioneer seed variety 93M20. Dupont/Bunge is marketing its low linolenic soybean oil under the brand name Nutrium. The idea is that reducing or eliminating the triple unsaturated fatty acid, linolenic, also eliminates the tendency to be a paint-like drying oil producing noticeable rancidity. In the past hydrogenation reduced the unsaturation in linolenic acid but produced the unnatural trans fatty acid trans fat configuration whereas in nature the configuration is cis.

One unintended consequence of moving away from partially hydrogenated soybean oil (containing trans fatty acids) is the switch to partially saturated palm oil for frying, especially in China. This fact is resulting in a severe threat of deforestation to pristine forests in Indonesia followed by the planting of oil palm plantations.[4]

In the 2002-2003 growing season, 30.6 million metric tons of soybean oil were produced worldwide, constituting about half of worldwide edible vegetable oil production, and thirty percent of all fats and oils produced, including animal fats and oils derived from tropical plants.[5]

Meal

Soybean meal, the material remaining after solvent extraction of soybean flakes, with a 50% soy protein content, toasted (a misnomer because the heat treatment is with moist steam), and ground, in a hammer mill, provided the energy for the American revolution, beginning in the 1930s, of growing farm animals such as poultry and swine on an industrial scale; and more recently the aquaculture of catfish.

Flour

Soy flour refers to defatted soybeans where special care was taken during desolventizing (not toasted) in order to minimize denaturation of the protein to retain a high Nitrogen Solubility Index (NSI), for uses such as extruder texturizing (TVP). It is the starting material for production of soy concentrate and soy protein isolate.

  • Defatted soy flour, is obtained from solvent extracted flakes, and contains less than 1% oil.
  • Full-fat soy flour, is made from unextracted, dehulled beans, and contains about 18% to 20% oil. Due to its high oil content a specialized Alpine Fine Impact Mill must be used for grinding rather than the more common hammermill.
  • Low fat soy flour, is made by adding back some oil to defatted soy flour. The lipid content varies according to specifications, usually between 4.5% and 9%.
  • High fat soy flour, is produced by adding back soybean oil to defatted flour, at the level of 15%.
  • Lecithinated soy flour, is made by adding soybean lecithin to defatted, low fat or high fat soy flours to increase their dispersibility and impart emulsifying properties. The lecithin content varies up to 15%.

Infant formula

Infant formulas based on soy are used by lactose-intolerant babies; and for babies that are allergic to human milk proteins and cow milk proteins. The formulas are sold in powdered, ready to feed, or concentrated liquid forms.

It has been recommended internationally by pediatric associations that soy formulas not be used as the primary or sole source of nutrition for infants due to the high risk of several deficiencies including calcium and zinc.

Substitute for existing products

Many traditional dairy products have been imitated using processed soybeans, and imitation products such as "soy milk," "soy yogurt" and "soy cream cheese" are readily available in most supermarkets. These imitation products are derived from extensive processing to produce a texture and appearance similar to the real dairy-based ones. Soy milk does not contain significant amounts of calcium, since the high calcium content of soybeans is bound to the insoluble constituents and remains in the pulp. Many manufacturers of soy milk now sell calcium-enriched products as well.

Other products

Soybeans are also used in industrial products including oils, soap, cosmetics, resins, plastics, inks, crayons, solvents, clothing, and biodiesel. Soybeans are also used as fermenting stock to make a brand of vodka.

Henry Ford promoted the soybean, helping to develop uses for it both in food and in industrial products, even demonstrating auto body panels made of soy-based plastics. Ford's interest lead to 2 bushels of soybeans being used in each Ford car as well as products like the first commercial soy milk, ice cream and all-vegetable non-dairy whipped topping.

The Ford development of so called soy-based plastics was based on the addition of soybean flour and wood flour to phenolformaldehyde plastics.

In 1931, Ford hired the chemists Robert Boyer and Frank Calvert in a quest for artificial silk. They succeeded in making a textile fiber of spun soy protein fibers, hardened or tanned in a formaldehyde bath which was given the name Azlon by the Federal Trade Commission. Pilot plant production of Azlon reached 5000 pounds per day in 1940, but never reached the commercial market. However, Henry Ford did have the now famous suit made for him of Azlon which he wore on special occasions. The winning textile fiber in the search for artificial silk was, of course, Nylon: a synthetic polyamide or artificial protein discovered in 1935 by Wallace H.Carothers at DuPont. [Soybeans and Soybean Products, Vol.II,edited by K.H. Markley,1951]

Today, very high quality textile fibers are made commercially from okara or soy pulp, a by- product of tofu production.

Nutrition

Protein

Main article: soy protein

Soybeans are a source of complete protein.[6] A complete protein is one that contains significant amounts of all the essential amino acids that must be provided to the human body because of the body's inability to synthesize them. For this reason, soy is important to many vegetarians and vegans. However, the phrase complete protein can be a bit misleading since proteins vary in their protein values. Whole eggs have a biological value of 100 versus 96 for whole soybeans, and 71 for highly processed isolated soy protein. Soy protein is similar to that of other legume seeds, but has the highest yield per square meter of growing area, and is the least expensive source of dietary protein.

The original Protein Efficiency Ratio PER method of measuring soy protein quality was found to be flawed for humans because the young rats used in the study have higher relative requirements for sulfur-containing amino acids. As such the analytical method that is universally recognized by the FAO/WHO (1990) as well as the FDA, USDA, United Nations University (UNU) and the National Academy of Sciences when judging the quality of protein is Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score, as it is viewed as accurately measuring the correct relative nutritional value of animal and vegetable sources of protein in the diet.[7][8] Based on this method, soy protein is considered to have a similar equivalent in protein quality to animal proteins. Egg white has a score of 1.00, beef 0.92, isolated soy protein 0.92, and soy concentrate 0.99. The digestibility of some soyfoods are as follows: steamed soybeans 65.3%, tofu 92.7%, soy "milk" 92.6%, soy protein isolate 93–97%[9]

Another measure of a protein's use in nutrition is the Biological Value scale. The Biological Value method, which dates back to 1911 relies on nitrogen retention as an indicator of protein quality. [10]

According to the 1972 publication Soybeans: Chemistry and Technology, isolated soy protein has an average biological value of 71, whole soybeans 96, soy milk 91, defatted soy flour 81.[10]

Vitamins and minerals

Toasted soybeans
Toasted soybeans

Of any studied legume, whole soybeans have the highest levels of phytic acid, an organic acid and mineral chelator present in many plant tissues, especially bran and seeds, which binds to certain ingested minerals: calcium, magnesium, iron, and especially zinc—in the intestinal tract, and reduces the amount the body assimilates. For people with a particularly low intake of essential minerals, especially young children and those in developing countries, this effect can be undesirable. However, dietary mineral chelators help prevent over-mineralization of joints, blood vessels, and other parts of the body, which is most common in older persons.

Consumption of soy may also reduce the risk of colon cancer, possibly due to the presence of sphingolipids.[11]

The role of soyfoods in disease prevention

Omega-3 fatty acids

Omega-3 fatty acids, for example, linolenic acid C18-3, all cis, 9,12,15 octadecatrienoic acid (where the omega-3 refers to carbon number 3 counting from the hydrocarbon tail whereas C-15 refers to carbon number 15 counting from the carboxyl acid head) are special fat components that benefit many body functions. For instance, they inhibit blood clotting. Soybean oil is one of the only common vegetable oils that contains a significant amount of omega-3s; others include canola, walnut, and flax.

Isoflavones

Soybeans also contain isoflavones, a type of phytoestrogen, that are considered by some nutritionists and physicians to be useful in the prevention of cancer and by others to be carcinogenic and endocrine disruptive. Soy's high levels of isoflavone phytoestrogens, being up to 3mg/g dry weight, are the subject of heated debate and controversy. They are also blamed for some thyroid and reproductive health problems. Isoflavones are polyphenol compounds, produced primarily by beans and other legumes, including peanuts and chickpeas.

Isolated phytoestrogen-like isoflavones are an active research area. A paper in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences studied the effect of the isolated soy isoflavones genistein and daidzein (commonly found in dietary supplements and infant formulas) on adult mice with their ovaries removed. The study found the mice had thymic and immune system abnormalities and reduction in immune system activity. The article suggests further research into human phytoestrogen response is warranted.[12]

From a website that advertises saliva pH alkalinity as a form of cancer protection:[13]

"Researchers Daniel Doerge and Daniel Sheehan, two of the FDA's experts on soy, signed a letter of protest, which points to studies that show a link between soy and health problems in certain animals. The two say they tried in vain to stop the FDA approval of soy because it could be misinterpreted as a broader general endorsement beyond benefits for the heart."[14]

The FDA has since publicly rejected these claims due to lack of evidence and cite numerous studies that uphold the health benefits of soy foods.[15]

Reduce cholesterol?

In 1995, the New England Journal of Medicine (Vol. 333, No. 5) published a report from the University of Kentucky entitled, "Meta-Analysis of the Effects of Soy Protein Intake on Serum Lipids." It was financed by the PTI division of DuPont,"The Solae Co."[16] St. Louis, Missouri, a soy producer and marketer. This meta-analysis concluded that soy protein is correlated with significant decreases in serum cholesterol, Low Density Lipoprotein LDL (bad cholesterol) and triglyceride concentrations. However, High Density Lipoprotein HDL(good cholesterol) did not increase by a significant amount. Soy phytoestrogens (isoflavones: genistein and daidzein) adsorbed onto the soy protein were suggested as the agent reducing serum cholesterol levels. On the basis of this research PTI, in 1998, filed a petition with FDA for a health claim that soy protein may reduce cholesterol and the risk of heart disease. It should be noted that only subjects with serum cholesterol of 250mg/dl and higher showed any improvement in the study.

The FDA granted this health claim for soy: "25 grams of soy protein a day, as part of a diet low in saturated fat and cholesterol, may reduce the risk of heart disease." One serving, (1 cup or 240 mL) of soy milk, for instance, contains 6 or 7 grams of soy protein. Solae resubmitted their original petition, asking for a more vague health claim, after their original was challenged and highly criticized. Solae also submitted a petition for a health claim that soy can help prevent cancer. They quickly withdrew the petition for lack of evidence and after more than 1000 letters of protest were received.

In January, 2006 an American Heart Association review (in the journal Circulation) of a decade long study of soy protein benefits casts doubt on the FDA allowed "Heart Healthy" claim for soy protein. This review of the literature compared soy protein and its component isoflavones with casein (isolated milk protein), wheat protein, and mixed animal proteins.[17] The review panel also found that soy isoflavones have not been shown to reduce post menopause "hot flashes" in women and the efficacy and safety of isoflavones to help prevent cancers of the breast, uterus or prostate is in question. Thus, soy isoflavone supplements in food or pills is not recommended. Among the conclusions the authors state, "In contrast, soy products such as tofu, soy butter, soy nuts, or some soy burgers should be beneficial to cardiovascular and overall health because of their high content of polyunsaturated fats, fiber, vitamins, and minerals and low content of saturated fat. Using these and other soy foods to replace foods high in animal protein that contain saturated fat and cholesterol may confer benefits to cardiovascular health."[18]

The original paper is in the journal Circulation: January 17,2006[19]

Soy controversy

Phytoestrogen

Soybeans contain isoflavones called genistein and daidzein. Isoflavones (isoflavonoids) are one of two primary groups of phytoestrogens, plant-based estrogen mimicking organic chemicals with antioxidant--free radical scavengers--properties. The other group is lignan. Plant lignans associated with high fiber foods such as cereal brans and beans are the principal precursor to mammalian lignans which have an ability to bind to human estrogen sites. The best source of lignans is flax seed. Soybeans are a significant source of mammalian lignan precursor secoisolariciresinol containing 13-273 µg/100 g dry weight.[20] Another phytoestrogen, in the human diet, with estrogen activity is coumestans but much less well studied which are found in beans, split-peas, with the best sources being alfalfa, clover, and soybean sprouts. Coumesterol, an isoflavone coumarin derivative is the only coumestan in foods.[21][22]

Phytoestrogen in men

Because of the phytoestrogen content, some studies indicate that there is a correlation between a soybean-rich diet and a decrease in the level of testosterone in men, although these findings are controversial.[23][24][25]

A study carried out at the Royal Victoria Hospital in Belfast linked soy to male infertility, including damage of reproductive capability already caused during childhood.[26] The study also points out that "soy is not just consumed by vegetarians, it is contained in a lot of everyday processed foods."

Phytoestrogen in women

A 2001 study determined that women with current or past breast cancer should be aware of the risks of potential tumor growth when taking soy products.[27]

A 2006 study reviewed the relationship with soy and breast cancer. To summarize, the research recommendation is that the impact of isoflavones on breast tissue needs to be evaluated at the cellular level in women at high risk for breast cancer.[28]

Phytoestrogen in infant formula

There are some studies that state that a phytoestrogen in soy can lead to alterations in the proliferation and migration of intestinal cells. The effects of these alterations are unknown.[29][30] However, some studies conclude there are no adverse effects in human growth, development, or reproduction as a result of the consumption of soy-based infant formula.[31] Other studies conclude that more research is needed to answer the question of what effect phytoestrogens have on infants.[32][33]

Allergens

Further information: Soy allergy

With the increased use of soybean in western diet comes also a danger of food allergies. About 8% of children in the USA are allergic to soybean proteins. The major soy allergen has been identified by scientists at USDA. Both transgenic and conventional soybean varieties without the allergenic protein have been prepared, and hopefully will soon reach the market. This will be particularly important for preparation of baby formulas, since dual allergy to both milk and soy proteins is not uncommon. Soya allergy, typically, will manifest itself approximately a day after consumption of the beans. Common symptoms are urticaria, rash, itching, and redness of the skin.[34][35][36][37][38][39][40]


 

Cancer in Rats

A 1985 animal study showed that young rats fed large amounts of soy products as their primary food source showed an increased risk of pancreatic cancer. This is probably because rats are extremely sensitive to dietary protease inhibitors like those found in soybeans, which can disrupt the action of digestive enzymes needed to break down protein. This condition has not been found in many other animals, and is not known to occur in humans. [citation needed]

Health food stores and soy

Soy consumption has been popularized by natural food companies and the soy industry's aggressive marketing campaign in various magazines, television ads and in health food markets. Research has been conducted examining the validity of the beneficial health claims with regard to the increase in consumption of soybeans which mimic hormonal activity. A practice guideline published in the journal Circulation questions the efficacy and safety of soy isoflavones for preventing or treating cancer of the breast, endometrium, and prostate (although the same study also concludes that soy in some foods should be beneficial to cardiovascular and overall health) and does not recommend usage of isoflavone supplements in food or pills.[41]

See also

  • Biodiesel
  • Protein per unit area
  • Soybean rust
  • Soy milk
  • Soy protein
  • Soy pulp
  • Soy sauce
  • Soybean cyst nematode
  • Soybean wax
  • Vegetable oil
  • Soy Bomb

References

  1. ^ Blackman, SA; Obendorf RL, Leopold AC (Sept 1992). "Maturation Proteins and Sugars in Desiccation Tolerance of Developing Soybean Seeds" (1.2M PDF, or scanned pages). Plant Physiol. 100 (1): 225-30. Full text at PMC: 1075542. Retrieved on 2006-10-21.
  2. ^ Lang, Susan. "Cornell alumnus Andrew Colin McClung reaps 2006 World Food Prize", Cornell University, 2006-06-21. Retrieved on 2006-10-21.
  3. ^ Liu, KeShun (1997-05-01). Soybeans : Chemistry, Technology, and Utilization (Hardcover), Springer, 532. ISBN 0-8342-1299-4.
  4. ^ Forests in Southeast Asia Fall to Prosperity's Ax will grow vast plantations for palm oil, an ... would develop in Indonesia as part of a $ ... From Indonesia to Malaysia to Myanmar, ...April 29, 2006 - By JANE PERLEZ; Muktita Suhartono contributed reporting for this article. (NYT)-New York Times - World - News - 1431 words. Center for Science in the Public Interest
  5. ^ United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Statistics 2004. Table 3-51.
  6. ^ http://www.truestarhealth.com/members/cm_archives12ML3P1A8.html The Scoop on Protein Powders By Sofia Segounis, Nutritionist
  7. ^ FAO/WHO (1991) Protein Quality Evaluation Report of Joint FAO/WHO Expert Consultation, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, FAO Food and Nutrition Paper No. 51, Rome.
  8. ^ Schaafsma, G. (2000) 'The protein digestibility-corrected amino acid score. Journal of Nutrition 130, 1865S-1867S
  9. ^ Liu, KeShun (1997-05-01). Soybeans : Chemistry, Technology, and Utilization (Hardcover), Springer, 532. ISBN 0-8342-1299-4. “Citation on p.391 from Watanabe, et al., 1971 (in Japanese)”
  10. ^ a b http://mycause.com/bjw/AKSmith-SJCircle-soy-protein.pdf
  11. ^ Symolon H, Schmelz E, Dillehay D, Merrill A (2004). "Dietary soy sphingolipids suppress tumorigenesis and gene expression in 1,2-dimethylhydrazine-treated CF1 mice and ApcMin/+ mice.". J Nutr 134 (5): 1157-61. PMID 15113963.
  12. ^ "The phytoestrogen genistein induces thymic and immune changes: A human health concern?" Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences May 28, 2002
  13. ^ Alkalize for health
  14. ^ FDA Scientists Against Soy. The anti-soy website "Soy Online Service" has the original letter in pdf. [1]
  15. ^ Soy: Health Claims for Soy Protein, Questions About Other Components
  16. ^ The Solae Company
  17. ^ Protein, Isoflavones, and Cardiovascular Health: An American Heart Association Science Advisory for Professionals From the Nutrition Committee -- Sacks et al. 113 (7): 1034 -- Circulation
  18. ^ Soy Protein, Isoflavones, and Cardiovascular Health: An American Heart Association Science Advisory for Professionals From the Nutrition Committee -- Sacks et al. 113 (7): 1034 -- Circulation
  19. ^ Soy Protein, Isoflavones, and Cardiovascular Health. An American Heart Association Science Advisory for Professionals From the Nutrition Committee -- Sacks et al., 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.171052 -- Circulation
  20. ^ Phytoestrogens and Prostate Disease -- Adlercreutz et al. 130 (3): 658 -- Journal of Nutrition
  21. ^ de Kleijn MJ, van der Schouw YT, Wilson PW, Grobbee DE, Jacques PF. Dietary intake of phytoestrogens is associated with a favorable metabolic cardiovascular risk profile in postmenopausal U.S. women: the Framingham study. J Nutr. 2002;132(2):276-282. (PubMed)
  22. ^ Valsta LM, Kilkkinen A, Mazur W, et al. Phyto-oestrogen database of foods and average intake in Finland. Br J Nutr. 2003;89 Suppl 1:S31-38. (PubMed)
  23. ^ Soy? Sorry... Tofu burgers are healthier than beef, and 8 other common health "facts" that are false Illustrations by: Nana Rausch, By: Shannon Davis
  24. ^ PMID 15735098
  25. ^ The Effects of Antenatal Exposure to Phytoestrogens on Human Male Reproductive and Urogenital Development by Bernard Poggi
  26. ^ Soya 'link' to male infertility. The humble soya bean may play a role in the problem of male infertility, a team of researchers in Belfast has found.
  27. ^ Ann Pharmacother. 2001 Sep;35(9):1118-21.Effects of soy phytoestrogens genistein and daidzein on breast cancer growth. de Lemos ML. Provincial Systemic Therapy Program, British Columbia Cancer Agency, Vancouver, Canada.
  28. ^ J Natl Cancer Inst. 2006 Sep 20;98(18):1275-84.Addressing the soy and breast cancer relationship: review, commentary, and workshop proceedings. Messina M, McCaskill-Stevens W, Lampe JW. Department of Nutrition, School of Public Health, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA, USA
  29. ^ Read Heading Under: Sour News for Soy Formula?
  30. ^ Genistein at a Concentration Present in Soy Infant Formula Inhibits Caco-2BBe Cell Proliferation by Causing G2/M Cell Cycle Arrest -- Chen and Donovan 134 (6): 1303 -- Journal of Nutrition
  31. ^ Safety of Soy-Based Infant Formulas Containing Isoflavones: The Clinical Evidence -- Merritt and Jenks 134 (5): 1220S -- Journal of Nutrition
  32. ^ PMID 14599051
  33. ^ PMID 15189112
  34. ^ Nexus Magazine August-September, 2004; The Hidden Dangers of Soy Allergens by Kaayla T. Daniel, PhD, CCN, retrieved September 7, 2006
  35. ^ "McDonald's Nutrition Information and Ingredients", August 26, 2006, retrieved September 7, 2006
  36. ^ McDonald's USA (11 page PDF file) "Burger King Nutrition and Ingredients" Burger King Brands Inc. USA, August, 2006, retrieved September 7, 2006
  37. ^ Wendy's USA (6 page PDF file) "Wendy's Nutrition Facts", July 1, 2006, retrieved September 7, 2006
  38. ^ about.com "Soy Allergy" August 13, 2006, retrieved September 7, 2006
  39. ^ Soy Allergy information page. Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America
  40. ^ Soy - One of the nine most common food allergens Health Canada: One Of The Nine Most Common Food Allergens
  41. ^ Sacks, FM; Lichtenstein A, Van Horn L, et. al (Feb 2006). "Soy protein, isoflavones, and cardiovascular health: an American Heart Association Science Advisory for professionals from the Nutrition Committee.". Circulation 113 (7): 1034-44. DOI:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.171052. PMID 16418439. Retrieved on 2006-10-21.
  • S. Blackman, R. Obendorf and A. C. Leopold (1992). "Maturation Proteins and Sugars in Desiccation Tolerance of Developing Soybean Seeds." Plant Physiology, 100 : 226-230. [3]
  • Soybeans and Soybean Products, Vol. II, edited by K.H. Markley, 1951
  • Smith, A. K. and Circle, S. J. (1972). Soybeans: Chemistry and Technology, AVI Publishing[1]
  • Tofu & Soymilk Production (1979). Volume 2: The Book of Tofu. William Shurtleff and Akiko Aoyagi.
  • Tofu & Soymilk Production (2000). Volume 2: The Book of Tofu. 3rd edition. William Shurtleff and Akiko Aoyagi. Soyfoods Center].
  • The History of Soybeans. North Carolina Soybean Producers Association. Retrieved on July 25, 2005.
  • American Soybean Association. Retrieved on July 25, 2005.
  • Liu, KeShun (1997). Soybeans: Chemistry, Technology, and Utilization Chapman & Hall.]
  • Ang, Catharina Y. W., KeShun Liu, and Yao-Wen Huang, eds. (1999). Asian Foods: Science & Technology. Lancaster, Pennsylvania: Technomic Publishing Co.
  • Berk, Zeki (1992) FAO (UN) [4].
  • Jordan, D. C. (1982). Transfer of Rhizobium japonicum Buchanan 1980 to Bradyrhizobium gen. nov., a genus of slow-growing, root nodule bacteria from leguminous plants. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 32: 136-139.
  • Frank Sacks, et al (2006). "Soy Protein, Isoflavones, and Cardiovascular Health." Circulation, 113 : 1034-1044. [5]

External links

Advocacy and general information
  • Information site about Soya
  • Guardian - There's no risk to humans from soya
  • Nutrition data
  • Soya recipe |Popular filipino food
  • Soya information
  • Soy Story: Soy in China
  • Soy Clothing: Properties of Soybean Protein Fibers and Yarn
Critical
  • Argentina Soya-fication Brings serious environmental, social and economic problems
  • Concerns Regarding Soybeans
  • Why Soy Can Damage Your Health
  • Evaluation of Anti-Soy Data and Anti-Soy Advocates
  • Guardian - Should we worry about soya in our food?
  • Soy's Thyroid Dangers
  • Soy Allergens
  • Soy Allergy Information Page Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America
  • Health Canada: Soy - One of the nine most common food allergens
  • Soya 'Link' To Male Infertility
  • Soy Online Service
  • Soy Alert!
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soybean"