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WIKIBOOKS
DISPONIBILI
?????????

ART
- Great Painters
BUSINESS&LAW
- Accounting
- Fundamentals of Law
- Marketing
- Shorthand
CARS
- Concept Cars
GAMES&SPORT
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COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY
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MEDICINE
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MUSIC&DANCE
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SCIENCE
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LIFESTYLE
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TRADITIONS
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NATURE
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ARTICLES IN THE BOOK

  1. A Dictionary of Americanisms
  2. A Dictionary of the English Language
  3. A Greek-English Lexicon
  4. A Latin Dictionary
  5. American and British English spelling differences
  6. Anagram dictionary
  7. Answers.com
  8. Babel Fish
  9. Babylon Ltd
  10. Bank of English
  11. Basic English
  12. Bilingual dictionary
  13. Black's Law Dictionary
  14. Brewer's Dictionary of Irish Phrase and Fable
  15. Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable
  16. British National Corpus
  17. Bryson's Dictionary of Troublesome Words
  18. Canadian Oxford Dictionary
  19. Centre for Lexicography
  20. Chambers Dictionary
  21. COBUILD
  22. Collaborative International Dictionary of English
  23. Concise Oxford Dictionary
  24. Corpus linguistics
  25. Defining vocabulary
  26. Definition
  27. Descriptionary
  28. DICT
  29. Dictionary
  30. Dictionary of American English
  31. Dictionary of American Regional English
  32. Dictionary of National Biography
  33. Dictionary of Received Ideas
  34. Dictionary of the Scots Language
  35. Dord
  36. Dorland's Medical Dictionary
  37. Easton's Bible Dictionary
  38. Electronic dictionary
  39. Encyclopedic dictionary
  40. English language
  41. Etymological dictionary
  42. Etymology
  43. FrameNet
  44. Franklin Electronic Publishers
  45. Freedict
  46. Free On-line Dictionary of Computing
  47. Free On-line Dictionary of Philosophy
  48. Gazetteer
  49. Gloss
  50. Glossary
  51. Glyph
  52. Gnome-dictionary
  53. Grady Ward
  54. Grammar
  55. HarperCollins
  56. Harvard Dictionary of Music
  57. Headword
  58. Idiom dictionary
  59. Imperial Dictionary
  60. Interglot
  61. James Murray
  62. Jargon File
  63. KMLE Medical Dictionary
  64. Law dictionary
  65. Legal lexicography
  66. Lemma
  67. LEO
  68. Lexeme
  69. Lexicographic error
  70. Lexicographic information cost
  71. Lexicography
  72. Lexicon
  73. Lexicon technicum
  74. Lexigraf
  75. Linguistic Data Consortium
  76. List of online dictionaries
  77. Logos Dictionary
  78. Longman
  79. LSP dictionary
  80. Macquarie Dictionary
  81. Main Page
  82. Maximizing dictionary
  83. Medical dictionary
  84. Merriam-Webster
  85. Merriam-Webster%27s Geographical Dictionary
  86. Minimizing dictionary
  87. Moby Project
  88. Moby Thesaurus
  89. Monolingual learner's dictionary
  90. Multi-field dictionary
  91. New Oxford American Dictionary
  92. New Oxford Dictionary of English
  93. Noah Webster
  94. Official Scrabble Players Dictionary
  95. OmniDictionary
  96. OneLook
  97. Online Etymology Dictionary
  98. Oxford Advanced Learner%27s Dictionary
  99. Oxford Classical Dictionary
  100. Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium
  101. Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology
  102. Oxford Dictionary of World Religions
  103. Oxford English Corpus
  104. Oxford English Dictionary
  105. Oxford spelling
  106. Oxford University Press
  107. Project Gutenberg
  108. Pronunciation
  109. Pseudodictionary
  110. Quotations
  111. Random House Dictionary of the English Language
  112. Reference.com
  113. Rhyming dictionary
  114. Roger's Profanisaurus
  115. Roget's Thesaurus
  116. Samuel Johnson
  117. Shorter Oxford English Dictionary
  118. Single-field dictionary
  119. Slang dictionary
  120. Specialised lexicography
  121. Specialized dictionary
  122. Spelling
  123. StarDict
  124. Sub-field dictionary
  125. Synonyms
  126. Table Alphabeticall
  127. The Century Dictionary
  128. The Computer Contradictionary
  129. The Devil's Dictionary
  130. The Devil's Dictionary X
  131. TheFreeDictionary.com
  132. The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy
  133. The Oxford Dictionary of Quotations
  134. Thesaurus
  135. The Surgeon of Crowthorne
  136. Translation dictionary
  137. Urban Dictionary
  138. Vines Expository Dictionary
  139. Webster's Dictionary
  140. Webster's New World Dictionary
  141. Wikipedia
  142. Wiktionary
  143. William Whitaker's Words
  144. WordNet
  145. World Book Dictionary
  146. Xrefer

 


 

 
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ENGLISH DICTIONARIES
This article is from:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemma_%28linguistics%29

All text is available under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License 

Lemma (linguistics)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

 
The word lemma has a different meaning in logic and in mathematics.

In linguistics a lemma is a form of a word, although its usage depends on the area of linguistics in which it is used.

In lexicography "lemma" refers to a headword or heading in any kind of dictionary, encyclopaedia, or commentary. So, for example, the lemma of this article is "Lemma (linguistics)". The term is derived from the practice in Greco-Roman antiquity of using the word to refer to the headwords of marginal glosses in scholia; for this reason, the Ancient Greek plural form is sometimes used, namely lemmata (Greek λῆμμα, pl. λήμματα).

In morphology, a lemma is the canonical form of a lexeme. Lexeme, in this context, refers to the set of all the forms that have the same meaning, and lemma refers to the particular form that is chosen by convention to represent the lexeme. Lemmas have special significance in highly inflected languages such as Czech. In this sense, a lemma can also be called a citation form.

In psycholinguistics, the terms lemma has a more restricted use: it is an abstract form of a word that is used in speech production. In the best accepted psycholinguistic models, speech production has several stages, and the lemma occurs after the word has been selected mentally, but before any information has been accessed about the sounds in it (and thus before the word can be pronounced). It therefore contains information concerning only meaning and the relation of this word to others in the sentence.

Morphology

In a dictionary, the lemma "go" represents the inflected forms "go", "goes", "going", "went", and "gone". The relationship between an inflected form and its lemma is usually denoted by an angle bracket, e.g. "went" < "go". The disadvantage of such simplifications is, of course, the inability to look up a declined or conjugated form of the word, although some dictionaries, like Webster's, will list "went". Multilingual dictionaries vary in how they deal with this issue: the Langenscheidt dictionary of German does not list ging (< gehen); the Cassell does.

The form that is chosen to be the lemma is usually the least marked form. There are significant exceptions; e.g. in Finnish, the dictionaries lists verbs not under the verb root, but under the first infinitive marked with -(t)a, -(t)ä.

Lemmas are used often in corpus linguistics for determining word frequency. In such usage the specific definition of "lemma" is flexible depending on the task it is being used for.

Lemmas in different languages

In English, the citation form of a noun is the singular: e.g. mouse rather than mice. For multi-word lexemes which contain possessive adjectives or reflexive pronouns, the citation form uses a form of the indefinite pronoun one: e.g. do one's best, perjure oneself. In languages with grammatical gender, the citation form of regular adjectives and nouns is usually the masculine singular. If the language additionally has cases, the citation form is often the masculine singular nominative.

In many languages, the citation form of a verb is the infinitive: French aller, German gehen. In English we can use either the bare infinitive go or the full infinitive to go. In Latin and Greek, however, the first person singular present tense is normally used, though occasionally the infinitive may also be seen. (For contracted verbs in Greek, an uncontracted first person singular present tense is used to reveal the contract vowel, e.g. φιλέω philéō for φιλῶ philō "I love implying affection"; αγαπάω agapáō for αγαπῶ agapō "I love implying regard").

In Arabic, which has no infinitives, the third person singular of the past tense is the least-marked form, and is used for entries in modern dictionaries. In older dictionaries, which are still commonly used today, the triliteral of the word, either a verb or a noun, is used. Hebrew often uses the 3rd person masculine qal perfect, e.g. ברא bara' create, כפר kaphar cover. For Korean, -da is attached to the stem.

Some phrases are cited in a sort of lemma, e.g. Carthago delenda est (Carthage must be destroyed) is a common way of citing Cato, although he more often said, Ceterum censeo Carthaginem esse delendam.

Psycholinguistics

When we produce a word, we are essentially turning our thoughts into sounds (a process known as lexicalisation). In many psycholinguistic models this is considered to be at least a two-stage process. The lemma is thus intermediate between the semantic level (where meaning is specified) and the phonological level (where the sounds of the word are specified). It is an abstract form containing syntactic information (about how the word can be used in a sentence), but no information about the pronunciation of the word. In this context, the lexeme is the phonologically specified form that is selected after the lemma.

This two-staged model is the most widely supported theory of speech production in psycholinguistics[1], although it has been recently challenged.[2] For example, there is some evidence to indicate that the grammatical gender of a noun is retrieved from the word's phonological form (the lexeme) rather than from the lemma.[3] This is easily explained by Caramazza's Independent Network model, which does not assume a distinct level between the semantic and the phonological stages (so there is no lemma representation); in this model, syntactic information about the word in this model is activated in the semantic or phonological level (so gender would be activated in the latter).[4]

See further

  • Linguistics
  • Corpus linguistics
  • morphology
  • Psycholinguistics
  • Markedness
  • Principal parts
  • Root (linguistics)

References

  1. ^ Harley, T. (2005) The Psychology of Language. Hove; New York: Psychology Press: 359
  2. ^ e.g. Caramazza, A. (1997) How many levels of processing are there in lexical access? Cognitive Neuropsychology, 14, 177-208.
  3. ^ e.g. Starreveld, P. A. and La Heij, W. (2004) Phonological facilitation of grammatical gender retrieval. Language and Cognitive Processes, 19 (6), 677-711.
  4. ^ Caramazza (1997)

External links

  • Lemma vs lexeme
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemma_%28linguistics%29"