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French cuisine
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WIKIMAG n. 6 - Maggio 2013
French
cuisine
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Traduzione
interattiva on/off
- Togli il segno di spunta per disattivarla
French
cuisine (French:
Cuisine française,
IPA: [kɥi.zin
fʁɑ̃.sɛz]) refers to
cooking
traditions and practices originating from
France.
Guillaume Tirel Taillevent, a
court chef,
wrote
Le Viandier, one of the earliest
recipe
collections of
Medieval France. During that time, French cuisine was heavily
influenced by
Italian cuisine. In the 17th century, chefs
François Pierre La Varenne and
Marie-Antoine Carême spearheaded movements that shifted French
cooking away from its
foreign influences and developed France's own indigenous style.
Cheese and
wine
are a major part of the cuisine, playing different roles regionally and
nationally, with many variations and
appellation d'origine
contrôlée (AOC) (regulated appellation) laws.
French cuisine was codified in the 20th century by
Escoffier to become the modern
haute cuisine; Escoffier, however, left out much of the regional
culinary character to be found in the
regions of France. Gastro-tourism and the
Guide Michelin helped to acquaint people with the rich
bourgeois and peasant cuisine of the French countryside starting in
the 20th century.
Gascon
cuisine has also had great influence over the cuisine in the southwest
of France. Many dishes that were once regional have proliferated in
variations across the country.
Knowledge of French cooking has contributed significantly to Western
cuisines and its criteria are used widely in Western cookery school
boards and
culinary education. In November 2010, French gastronomy was added by
UNESCO to its lists of the world's "intangible
cultural heritage"[1][2]
along with
Mexican cuisine.
Contents
-
1
History
-
2
National cuisine
-
3
Regional cuisine
-
3.1
Paris and Île-de-France
-
3.2
Champagne, Lorraine, and Alsace
-
3.3
Nord Pas-de-Calais, Picardy, Normandy, and Brittany
-
3.4
Loire Valley and central France
-
3.5
Burgundy and Franche-Comté
-
3.6
Lyon-Rhône-Alpes
-
3.7
Poitou-Charentes and Limousin
-
3.8
Bordeaux, Périgord, Gascony, and Basque country
-
3.9
Toulouse, Quercy, and Aveyron
-
3.10
Roussillon, Languedoc, and
Cévennes
-
3.11
Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur
-
3.12
Corsica
-
4
Specialties by season
-
5 Foods
and ingredients
-
6
Structure of meals
-
7
Beverages & Drinks
-
8 Food
establishments
-
9 See
also
-
10
References
-
11
Further reading
-
12
External links
|
History
French cuisine has evolved extensively over centuries from local and
foreign influences. The national cuisine began to form during the Middle
Ages through the work of skilled chefs serving the French nobility. The
city of Paris
was the center of many innovative movements led by royal chefs that
eventually gave birth to modern French cuisine. This cuisine eventually
spread throughout the country and was exported overseas through trade
and colonization which in turn brought numerous other influences from
around the world.[3]
Middle Ages
In French
medieval cuisine, banquets were common among the
aristocracy. Multiple courses would be prepared, but served in a
style called service en confusion, or all at once. Food was
generally eaten by hand, meats being sliced off large pieces held
between the thumb and two fingers. The sauces were highly seasoned and
thick, and heavily flavored mustards were used. Pies were a common
banquet item, with the crust serving primarily as a container, rather
than as food itself, and it was not until the very end of the
Late Middle Ages that the
shortcrust pie was developed. Meals often ended with an issue de
table, which later changed into the modern dessert, and typically
consisted of
dragées
(in the Middle Ages, meaning spiced lumps of hardened sugar or honey),
aged cheese and spiced wine, such as
hypocras.[4]:1–7
The ingredients of the time varied greatly according to the seasons
and the church calendar, and many items were preserved with salt,
spices, honey, and other preservatives. Late spring, summer, and autumn
afforded abundance, while winter meals were more sparse. Livestock were
slaughtered at the beginning of winter. Beef was often salted, while
pork was salted and smoked. Bacon and sausages would be smoked in the
chimney, while the tongue and hams were
brined
and dried. Cucumbers were brined as well, while greens would be packed
in jars with salt. Fruits, nuts and root vegetables would be boiled in
honey for preservation. Whale, dolphin and porpoise were considered
fish, so during
Lent, the salted meats of these sea mammals were eaten.[4]:9–12
Artificial freshwater ponds (often called stews) held
carp,
pike,
tench,
bream,
eel, and other fish. Poultry was kept in special yards, with pigeon
and
squab being reserved for the elite. Game was highly prized, but very
rare, and included
venison,
wild
boar, hare, rabbit, and birds. Kitchen gardens provided herbs,
including some, such as
tansy,
rue,
pennyroyal, and
hyssop, which are rarely used today. Spices were treasured and very
expensive at that time – they included pepper, cinnamon, cloves, nutmeg,
and
mace. Some spices used then, but no longer today in French cuisine
are cubebs,
long pepper (both from vines similar to black pepper),
grains of paradise, and
galengale. Sweet-sour flavors were commonly added to dishes with
vinegars and
verjus combined with sugar (for the affluent) or honey. A common
form of food preparation was to finely cook, pound and strain mixtures
into fine pastes and mushes, something believed to be beneficial to make
use of nutrients.[4]:13–15
Visual display was prized. Brilliant colors were obtained by the
addition of, for example, juices from spinach and the green part of
leeks.
Yellow came from
saffron
or egg yolk, while red came from
sunflower, and purple came from
Crozophora tinctoria or
Heliotropium europaeum. Gold and
silver leaf were placed on food surfaces and brushed with egg
whites. Elaborate and showy dishes were the result, such as tourte
parmerienne which was a pastry dish made to look like a castle with
chicken-drumstick turrets coated with
gold
leaf. One of the grandest showpieces of the time was roast
swan or
peacock
sewn back into its skin with feathers intact, the feet and beak being
gilded. Since both birds are stringy, and taste unpleasant, the skin
and feathers could be kept and filled with the cooked, minced and
seasoned flesh of tastier birds, like goose or chicken.[4]:15–16
The most well known French chef of the Middle Ages was
Guillaume Tirel, also known as Taillevent. Taillevent worked in
numerous royal kitchens during the 14th century. His first position was
as a kitchen boy in 1326. He was chef to
Philip VI, then the
Dauphin who was son of
John II. The Dauphin became King
Charles V of France in 1364, with Taillevent as his chief cook. His
career spanned sixty-six years, and upon his death he was buried in
grand style between his two wives. His tombstone represents him in
armor, holding a shield with three cooking pots, marmites, on it.[4]:18–21
Ancien régime
During the
ancien régime, Paris was the central hub of culture and economic
activity, and as such, the most highly skilled culinary craftsmen were
to be found there. Markets in Paris such as
Les
Halles, la Mégisserie, those found along
Rue Mouffetard, and similar smaller versions in other cities
were very important to the distribution of food. Those that gave French
produce its characteristic identity were regulated by the
guild
system, which developed in the
Middle Ages. In Paris, the guilds were regulated by city government
as well as by the French crown. A guild restricted those in a given
branch of the culinary industry to operate only within that field.[4]:71–72
There were two basic groups of guilds – first, those that supplied
the raw materials; butchers, fishmongers, grain merchants, and
gardeners. The second group were those that supplied prepared foods;
bakers,
pastry cooks, saucemakers, poulterers, and
caterers. There were also guilds that offered both raw materials and
prepared food, such as the
charcutiers and rôtisseurs (purveyors of roasted meat
dishes). They would supply cooked meat pies and dishes as well as raw
meat and poultry. This caused issues with butchers and poulterers, who
sold the same raw materials.[4]:72–73
The guilds served as a training ground for those within the industry.
The degrees of assistant-cook, full-fledged cook and master chef were
conferred. Those who reached the level of master chef were of
considerable rank in their individual industry, and enjoyed a high level
of income as well as economic and job security. At times, those in the
royal kitchens did fall under the guild hierarchy, but it was necessary
to find them a parallel appointment based on their skills after leaving
the service of the royal kitchens. This was not uncommon as the Paris
cooks' guild regulations allowed for this movement.[4]:73
During the 18th and 19th centuries, French cuisine assimilated many
new food items from the
New
World. Although they were slow to be adopted, records of banquets
show
Catherine de' Medici serving sixty-six turkeys at one dinner.[4]:81
The dish called
cassoulet has its roots in the New World discovery of
haricot beans, which are central to the dish's creation, but had not
existed outside of the New World until its exploration by
Christopher Columbus.[4]:85
17th century – early 18th century
Haute cuisine (pronounced: [ot
kɥizin], "high cuisine") has foundations during the 17th
century with a chef named
La Varenne. As author of works such as Le Cuisinier françois,
he is credited with publishing the first true French cookbook. His book
includes the earliest known reference to
roux using
pork fat. The book contained two sections, one for meat days, and one
for
fasting. His recipes marked a change from the style of cookery known
in the Middle Ages, to new techniques aimed at creating somewhat lighter
dishes, and more modest presentations of pies as individual pastries and
turnovers. La Varenne also published a book on pastry in 1667 entitled
Le Parfait confitvrier (republished as Le Confiturier françois)
which similarly updated and codified the emerging haute cuisine
standards for desserts and pastries.[4]:114–120
Chef
François Massialot wrote Le Cuisinier roïal et bourgeois in
1691, during the reign of
Louis XIV. The book contains menus served to the royal courts in
1690. Massialot worked mostly as a freelance cook, and was not employed
by any particular household. Massialot and many other royal cooks
received special privileges by association with the French royalty. They
were not subject to the regulation of the guilds; therefore, they could
cater weddings and banquets without restriction. His book is the first
to list recipes alphabetically, perhaps a forerunner of the first
culinary dictionary. It is in this book that a
marinade is first seen in print, with one type for poultry and
feathered game, while a second is for fish and shellfish. No quantities
are listed in the recipes, which suggests that Massialot was writing for
trained cooks.[4]:149–154
The successive updates of Le Cuisinier roïal et bourgeois
include important refinements such as adding a glass of wine to
fish stock. Definitions were also added to the 1703 edition. The
1712 edition, retitled Le Nouveau cuisinier royal et bourgeois,
was increased to two volumes, and was written in a more elaborate style
with extensive explanations of technique. Additional smaller
preparations are included in this edition as well, leading to lighter
preparations, and adding a third course to the meal.
Ragout,
a stew still central to French cookery, makes its first appearance as a
single dish in this edition as well; prior to that, it was listed as a
garnish.[4]:155
Late 18th century – 19th century
The
French Revolution was integral to the expansion of French cuisine,
because it effectively abolished guilds. This meant any one chef could
now produce and sell any culinary item he wished.
Marie-Antoine Carême was born in 1784, five years before the onset
of the
Revolution. He spent his younger years working at a
pâtisserie
until being discovered by
Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord, who would later cook for the
French emperor
Napoleon Bonaparte. Prior to his employment with Talleyrand, Carême
had become known for his pièces montèes, which were extravagant
constructions of pastry and sugar architecture.[5]:144–145
More important to Carême's career was his contribution to the
refinement of French cuisine. The basis for his style of cooking came
from his sauces, which he named
mother sauces. Often referred to as
fonds,
meaning "foundations", these base sauces,
espagnole,
velouté, and
béchamel, are still known today. Each of these sauces would be
made in large quantities in his kitchen, as they were then capable of
forming the basis of multiple derivatives. Carême had over one hundred
sauces in his repertoire. In his writings, soufflés appear for the first
time. Although many of his preparations today seem extravagant, he
simplified and codified an even more complex cuisine that had existed
beforehand. Central to his codification of the cuisine were Le Maître
d'hôtel français (1822), Le Cuisinier parisien (1828) and
L'Art de la cuisine française au dix-neuvième siècle (1833–5).[5]:144–148
Late 19th century – early 20th century
Georges Auguste Escoffier is commonly acknowledged as the central
figure to the modernization of
haute cuisine and organizing what would become the national cuisine
of France. His influence began with the rise of some of the great hotels
in Europe and America during the 1880s – 1890s. The
Savoy Hotel managed by
César Ritz was an early hotel Escoffier worked at, but much of his
influence came during his management of the kitchens in the Carlton from
1898 until 1921. He created a system of "parties" called the
brigade system, which separated the professional kitchen into five
separate stations.
These five stations included the "garde
manger" that prepared cold dishes; the "entremettier" prepared
starches and vegetables, the "rôtisseur" prepared roasts, grilled and
fried dishes; the "saucier"
prepared sauces and soups; and the "pâtissier" prepared all pastry and
desserts items. This system meant that instead of one person preparing a
dish on one's own, now multiple cooks would prepare the different
components for the dish. An example used is "oeufs au plat Meyerbeer",
the prior system would take up to fifteen minutes to prepare the dish,
while in the new system, the eggs would be prepared by the entremettier,
kidney grilled by the rôtisseur, truffle sauce made by the saucier and
thus the dish could be prepared in a shorter time and served quickly in
the popular restaurants.[5]:157–159
Escoffier also simplified and organized the modern menu and structure
of the meal. He published a series of articles in professional journals
which outlined the sequence, and then he finally published his Livre
des menus in 1912. This type of service embraced the
service à la russe (serving meals in separate courses on individual
plates), which Félix Urbain Dubois had made popular in the 1860s.
Escoffier's largest contribution was the publication of
Le Guide Culinaire in 1903, which established the fundamentals
of French cookery. The book was a collaboration with Philéas Gilbert, E.
Fetu, A. Suzanne, B. Reboul, Ch. Dietrich, A. Caillat and others. The
significance of this is to illustrate the universal acceptance by
multiple high-profile chefs to this new style of cooking.[5]:159–160
Le Guide Culinaire deemphasized the use of heavy sauces and
leaned toward lighter
fumets, which are the essence of flavor taken from fish, meat and
vegetables. This style of cooking looked to create garnishes and sauces
whose function is to add to the flavor of the dish, rather than mask
flavors like the heavy sauces and ornate garnishes of the past.
Escoffier took inspiration for his work from personal recipes in
addition to recipes from Carême, Dubois and ideas from Taillevent's
Viander, which had a modern version published in 1897. A second
source for recipes came from existing peasant dishes that were
translated into the refined techniques of haute cuisine.
Expensive ingredients would replace the common ingredients, making
the dishes much less humble. The third source of recipes was Escoffier
himself, who invented many new dishes, such as
pêche Melba and
crêpes Suzette.[5]:160–162
Escoffier updated Le Guide Culinaire four times during his
lifetime, noting in the foreword to the book's first edition that even
with its 5,000 recipes, the book should not be considered an
"exhaustive" text, and that even if it were at the point when he wrote
the book, "it would no longer be so tomorrow, because progress marches
on each day."[6]
Mid 20th century – late 20th century
The 1960s brought about innovative thought to the French cuisine,
especially because of the contribution of Portuguese immigrants that had
come to the country fleeing the forced drafting to the Colonial Wars
Portugal was fighting in Africa. Many new dishes were introduced, as
well as techniques. This period is also marked by the appearance of the
"Nouvelle Cuisine".
The term
nouvelle cuisine has been used many times in the history of French
cuisine. In the 1740s,
Menon first used the term, but the cooking of
Vincent La Chapelle and François Marin was also considered modern.
In the 1960s,
Henri Gault and
Christian Millau revived it to describe the cooking of
Paul Bocuse,
Jean and
Pierre Troisgros,
Michel Guérard, Roger Vergé and
Raymond Oliver.[7]
These chefs were working toward rebelling against the "orthodoxy" of
Escoffier's cuisine. Some of the chefs were students of
Fernand Point at the
Pyramide in
Vienne,
and had left to open their own restaurants. Gault and Millau "discovered
the formula" contained in ten characteristics of this new style of
cooking.[5]:163–164
The first characteristic was a rejection of excessive complication in
cooking. Second, the cooking times for most fish, seafood, game birds,
veal, green vegetables and pâtés was greatly reduced in an attempt to
preserve the natural flavors. Steaming was an important trend from this
characteristic. The third characteristic was that the cuisine was made
with the freshest possible ingredients. Fourth, large menus were
abandoned in favor of shorter menus. Fifth, strong marinades for meat
and game ceased to be used. Sixth, they stopped using heavy sauces such
as
espagnole and béchamel thickened with flour based "roux", in favor
of seasoning their dishes with fresh herbs, quality butter, lemon juice,
and vinegar. Seventh, they used regional dishes for inspiration instead
of haute cuisine dishes. Eighth, new techniques were embraced and modern
equipment was often used; Bocuse even used microwave ovens. Ninth, the
chefs paid close attention to the dietary needs of their guests through
their dishes. Tenth and finally, the chefs were extremely inventive and
created new combinations and pairings.[5]:163–164
Some have speculated that a contributor to nouvelle cuisine was World
War II when animal protein was in short supply during the German
occupation.[8]
By the mid-1980s food writers stated that the style of cuisine had
reached exhaustion and many chefs began returning to the haute cuisine
style of cooking, although much of the lighter presentations and new
techniques remained.[5]:163–164
National cuisine
There are many dishes that are considered part of French national
cuisine today.
A meal often consists of three courses, hors d'œuvre or
entrée (introductory course, sometimes soup), plat principal
(main course), fromage (cheese course) and/or dessert,
sometimes with a salad offered before the cheese or dessert.
- Hors d'œuvre
- Plat principal
- Pâtisserie & Dessert
Regional cuisine
French regional cuisine is characterized by its extreme diversity and
style. Traditionally, each region of France has its own distinctive
cuisine.[9]
Paris
and Île-de-France
Paris and Île-de-France are central regions where almost anything
from the country is available, as all train lines meet in the city. Over
9,000 restaurants exist in Paris and almost any cuisine can be had here.
High-quality
Michelin Guide rated restaurants proliferate here.[10]
Champagne, Lorraine, and Alsace
Game and ham are popular in
Champagne, as well as the special sparkling wine simply known as
Champagne. Fine fruit preserves are known from
Lorraine as well as the
quiche
Lorraine.
Alsace is influenced by the Alemannic food culture; as such,
beers made in the area are similar to the style of bordering
Germany.[10]:55
Nord Pas-de-Calais, Picardy, Normandy, and Brittany
The coastline supplies many
crustaceans,
sea bass,
monkfish and
herring.
Normandy has top quality seafood, such as
scallops
and
sole, while
Brittany has a supply of lobster, crayfish and mussels. Normandy is
home to a large population of apple trees; apples are often used in
dishes, as well as
cider and
Calvados. The northern areas of this region, especially
Nord, grow ample amounts of wheat, sugar beets and
chicory.
Thick stews are found often in these northern areas as well. The produce
of these northern regions is also considered some of the best in the
country, including cauliflower and artichokes. Buckwheat grows widely in
Brittany as well and is used in the region's
galettes,
called jalet, which is where this dish originated.[10]:93
Loire
Valley and central France
High quality fruits come from
the Loire Valley and central France, including cherries grown for
the liqueur
Guignolet and the Belle Angevine pears. The strawberries
and melons are also of high quality. Fish are seen in the cuisine, often
served with a
beurre blanc sauce, as well as wild game, lamb, calves,
Charolais cattle, Géline fowl, and high quality goat cheeses.
Young vegetables are used often in the cuisine as are the specialty
mushrooms of the region, champignons de Paris. Vinegars from
Orléans
are a specialty ingredient used as well.[10]:129,
132
Burgundy and Franche-Comté
Burgundy and
Franche-Comté are known for their wines.
Pike,
perch, river crabs, snails, game,
redcurrants,
blackcurrants are from both
Burgundy and
Franche-Comté. Amongst savorous specialties accounted in the
Cuisine franc-comtoise from the
Franche-Comté region are
Croûte aux morilles,
Poulet à la Comtoise,
trout,
smoked meat and cheese such as
Mont d'Or,
Comté (cheese) and
Morbier (cheese) which are at the palate best eaten hot or cold, the
exquisite
Coq au vin jaune and especial desert
Gateau de ménage.
Charolais beef,
poultry from
Bresse,
sea
snail, honey cake,
Chaource and
Epoisses cheese are specialties of the local cuisine of Burgundy.
Dijon mustard is also a specialty of Burgundy cuisine.
Crème de Cassis is a popular liquor made from the blackcurrants.
Oil are used in the cooking here, types include nut oils and
rapeseed oil.[10]:153,156,166,185
Lyon-Rhône-Alpes
Fruit and young vegetables are popular in the cuisine from the
Rhône valley. Poultry from
Bresse,
guinea fowls from Drôme and fish from the Dombes lakes and mountain in
Rhône-Alpes streams are key to the cuisine as well.
Lyon and
Savoy
supply high quality sausages while the
Alpine regions supply their specialty cheeses like
Beaufort,
Abondance,
Reblochon,
Tomme and
Vacherin. Mères lyonnaises are a particular type of
restaurateur relegated to this region that are the regions bistro.
Celebrated chefs from this region include
Fernand Point,
Paul Bocuse, the Troisgros brothers and Alain Chapel. The
Chartreuse Mountains are in this region, and the liquor
Chartreuse is produced in a monastery there.[10]:197,230
Poitou-Charentes and Limousin
Oysters come from the Oléron-Marennes basin, while mussels come from
the Bay of Aiguillon. High quality produce comes from the region's
hinterland, especially goat cheese. This region and in the
Vendée
is grazing ground for Parthenaise cattle, while poultry is raised
in
Challans.
Poitou
and
Charente purportedly produce the best butter and cream in France.
Cognac is also made in the region along the
Charente River.
Limousin is home to the high quality
Limousin cattle, as well as high quality sheep. The woodlands offer
game and high quality mushrooms. The southern area around
Brive draws its cooking influence from
Périgord and
Auvergne to produce a robust cuisine.[10]:237
Bordeaux, Périgord, Gascony, and Basque country
Main article:
Basque cuisine
Bordeaux is known for its wine, with certain areas offering
specialty grapes for wine-making. Fishing is popular in the region for
the cuisine, sea fishing in the
Bay of Biscay, trapping in the
Garonne
and stream fishing in the
Pyrenees. The Pyrenees also support top quality lamb, such as the
"Agneau de Pauillac", as well as high quality sheep cheeses. Beef
cattle in the region include the
Blonde d'Aquitaine, Boeuf de Chalosse, Boeuf Gras de
Bazas, and Garonnaise. High quality free-range chicken,
turkey, pigeon,
capon,
goose and duck prevail in the region as well.
Gascony
and
Périgord cuisines includes high quality patés,
terrines,
confits
and magrets. This is one of the regions notable for its
production of
foie
gras or fattened goose or duck liver. The cuisine of the region is
often heavy and farm based.
Armagnac is also from this region, as are high quality prunes from
Agen.[10]:259,295
Toulouse, Quercy, and Aveyron
Gers, a
department of France, is within this region and has high quality
poultry, while
La Montagne Noire and
Lacaune
area offers high quality hams and dry sausages. White corn is planted
heavily in the area both for use in fattening the ducks and geese for
foie gras and for the production of millas, a cornmeal porridge.
Haricot beans are also grown in this area, which are central to the
dish
cassoulet. The finest sausage in France is commonly acknowledged to
be the saucisse de Toulouse, which also finds its way into their
version of cassoulet of
Toulouse. The
Cahors
area produces a high quality specialty "black wine" as well as
high-quality
truffles and mushrooms.
This region also produces milk-fed lamb. Unpasteurized
ewe's milk is used to produce the
Roquefort in
Aveyron,
while in
Laguiole is producing unpasteurized cow's milk cheese. The
Salers
cattle produce quality milk for cheese, as well as beef and veal
products. The volcanic soils create flinty cheeses and superb lentils.
Mineral waters are produced in high volume in this region as well.[10]:313
Cabécou cheese is from Rocamadour, a medieval settlement erected
directly on a cliff, in the rich countryside of Causses du Quercy. This
area is one of the region’s oldest milk producers; it has chalky soil,
marked by history and human activity, and is favourable for the raising
of goats.
Roussillon, Languedoc, and Cévennes
Restaurants are popular in the area known as
Le Midi. Oysters come from the Etang de Thau, to be served in
the restaurants of Bouzigues, Meze, and
Sète.
Mussels are commonly seen here in addition to fish specialties of Sète,
Bourride, Tielles and Rouille de seiche. In the
Languedoc jambon cru, sometimes known as jambon de
montagne is produced. High quality
Roquefort comes from the brebis (sheep) on the
Larzac
plateau. The
Les
Cévennes area offers mushrooms, chestnuts, berries, honey, lamb,
game, sausages, pâtés and goat cheeses.
Catalan influence can be seen in the cuisine here with dishes like
brandade made from a purée of dried
cod wrapped in
mangold
leaves. Snails are plentiful and are prepared in a specific Catalan
style known as a cargolade.
Wild
boar can be found in the more mountainous regions of the Midi.[10]:349,360
Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur
The
Provence and
Côte d'Azur region is rich in quality citrus, vegetables and fruits
and herbs – the region is one of the largest suppliers of all these
ingredients in France. The region also produces the largest amount of
olives, and creates superb olive oil.
Lavender is used in many dishes found in Haute Provence.
Other important herbs in the cuisine include
thyme,
sage,
rosemary,
basil,
savory,
fennel,
marjoram,
tarragon,
oregano,
and bay
leaf. Honey is a prized ingredient in the region. Seafood
proliferates throughout the coastal area. Goat cheeses, air-dried
sausages, lamb, beef, and chicken are popular here. Garlic* and
anchovies are used in many of the region's sauces, as in Poulet
Provençal, which uses white wine, tomatoes, herbs, and sometimes
anchovies, and
Pastis
is found everywhere that alcohol is served. The cuisine uses a large
amount of vegetables for lighter preparations. Truffles are commonly
seen in Provence during the winter.
Thirteen desserts in Provence are the traditional Christmas dessert,[11]
e.g.
quince cheese, biscuits, almonds,
nougat,
apple, and
fougasse.
Rice is grown in the
Camargue, which is the most-northerly rice growing area in Europe,
with
Camargue red rice being a specialty.[10]:387,403,404,410,416
Anibal Camous, a Marseillais who lived to be 104, maintained that it was
by eating garlic daily that he kept his “youth” and brilliance. When his
eighty-year-old son died, the father mourned : “ I always told him he
wouldn’t live long, poor boy. He ate too little garlic !” (cited by
chef Philippe Gion)
Corsica
Goats and sheep proliferate on the island of
Corsica,
and lamb are used to prepare dishes such as "stufato",
ragouts
and roasts. Cheeses are also produced, with "brocciu"
being the most popular.
Chestnuts, growing in the Castagniccia forest, are used to produce
flour, which is used in turn to make bread, cakes and
polenta.
The forest provides acorns used to feed the pigs and
boars that provide much of the protein for the island's cuisine.
Fresh fish and seafood are common. The island's pork is used to make
fine hams, sausage and other unique items including
coppa (dried rib cut), lonzu (dried pork fillet),
figatella, salumu (a dried sausage) salcietta,
Panzetta, bacon, figarettu (smoked and dried liverwurst) and
prisuttu (farmer's ham).
Clementines (which hold an AOC designation), lemons, nectarines and
figs are grown there. Candied
citron
is used in
nougats, while and the aforementioned brocciu and chestnuts are also
used in desserts. Corsica offers a variety of wines and fruit liqueurs,
including
Cap
Corse,
Patrimonio, Cédratine, Bonapartine, liqueur de
myrte, vins de fruit, Rappu, and
eau-de-vie de châtaigne.[10]:435,441,442
Specialties by
season
French cuisine varies according to the season. In summer, salads and
fruit dishes are popular because they are refreshing and produce is
inexpensive and abundant. Greengrocers prefer to sell their fruit and
vegetables at lower prices if needed, rather than see them rot in the
heat. At the end of summer, mushrooms become plentiful and appear in
stews throughout France. The hunting season begins in September and runs
through February. Game of all kinds is eaten, often in elaborate dishes
that celebrate the success of the hunt. Shellfish are at their peak when
winter turns to spring, and oysters appear in restaurants in large
quantities.
With the advent of deep-freeze and the air-conditioned
hypermarché, these seasonal variations are less marked than
hitherto, but they are still observed, in some cases due to legal
restrictions.
Crayfish, for example, have a short season and it is illegal to
catch them out of season.[12]
Moreover, they do not freeze well.
Foods and
ingredients
French regional cuisines use locally grown vegetables, such as
pomme de terre (potato), blé (wheat),
haricots verts (a type of French green bean), carotte
(carrot), poireau (leek),
navet (turnip),
aubergine (eggplant),
courgette (zucchini),
and échalotte (shallot).
French regional cuisines use locally grown fungi, such as truffe
(truffle),
champignon de Paris (button
mushroom), chanterelle ou girolle (chanterelle),
pleurote (en huître) (oyster
mushrooms), and cèpes (porcini).
Common fruits include oranges, tomatoes,
tangerines,
peaches,
apricots,
apples,
pears,
plums,
cherries,
strawberries,
raspberries,
redcurrants,
blackberries,
grapes,
grapefruit, and
blackcurrants.
Varieties of meat consumed include poulet (chicken),
pigeon (squab),
dinde (turkey),
canard (duck),
oie (goose,
the source of
foie
gras), bœuf (beef),
veau (veal),
porc (pork),
agneau (lamb),
mouton (mutton),
lapin (rabbit),
caille (quail),
cheval (horse),
grenouille (frog),
and
escargot (snails). Commonly consumed fish and seafood include
cod,
canned sardines,
fresh sardines, canned
tuna, fresh
tuna,
salmon,
trout,
mussels,
herring,
oysters,
shrimp
and
calamari.
Eggs are fine quality and often eaten as:
omelettes, hard-boiled with
mayonnaise,
scrambled plain, scrambled
haute cuisine preparation, œuf à la coque.
Herbs and seasonings vary by region, and include
fleur de sel,
herbes de Provence,
tarragon,
rosemary,
marjoram,
lavender,
thyme,
fennel, and
sage.
Fresh fruit and vegetables, as well as fish and meat, can be
purchased either from supermarkets or specialty shops. Street markets
are held on certain days in most localities; some towns have a more
permanent covered market enclosing food shops, especially meat and fish
retailers. These have better shelter than the periodic street markets.
Structure of meals
Breakfast
Le petit déjeuner (breakfast) is traditionally a quick meal
consisting of tartines (slices) of French bread with jelly or
jam, along with coffee or tea.[13]
Children often drink
hot chocolate in bowls along with their breakfasts.
croissants,
pain aux raisins or
pain au chocolat (also named chocolatine in the south of
France) are mostly included as a weekend treat. Breakfast of some kind
is always served in cafés opening early in the day.
Lunch
Le déjeuner (lunch) is a two-hour mid-day meal, but it has
recently seen a trend towards the one hour lunch break. In some smaller
towns and in the south of France, the two-hour lunch may still be
customary. Sunday lunches are often longer and are taken with the
family.[14]
Restaurants normally open for lunch at noon and close at 2:30 pm. Some
restaurants close on Monday during lunch.[15]
In large
cities, a majority of working people and
students eat their lunch at a corporate or school cafeteria, which
normally serve complete meals as described above; it is therefore not
usual for students to bring their own lunch food. Where the company does
not operate a cafeteria, it is common for
white-collar workers to be given lunch vouchers as part of their
employee benefits. These can be used in most restaurants, supermarkets
and
traiteurs; however, workers having lunch in this way typically
do not eat all three dishes of a traditional lunch due to price and time
considerations. In smaller cities and towns, some working people leave
their workplaces to return home for lunch, generating four rush hours
during the day. Finally, an alternative also popular, especially among
blue-collar workers, is to lunch on a sandwich, possibly followed
with a dessert; both dishes can be found ready-made at bakeries and
supermarkets for budget prices.
Dinner
Le dîner (dinner) often consists of three courses,
hors d'œuvre or
entrée
(appetizers or introductory course, sometimes soup), plat principal
(main course), and a cheese course or dessert, sometimes with a salad
offered before the cheese or dessert. Yogurt may replace the cheese
course, while a simple dessert would be fresh fruit. The meal is often
accompanied by bread,
wine and
mineral water. Main meat courses are often served with vegetables,
along with potatoes, rice or pasta.[14]:82
Restaurants often open at 7:30 pm for dinner, and stop taking orders
between the hours of 10:00 pm and 11:00 pm. Some restaurants close for
dinner on Sundays.[15]:342
Beverages &
Drinks
In French cuisine, beverages that precede a meal are called
apéritifs (literally: that opens the appetite), and can be
served with
amuse-bouches (literally: mouth amuser). Those that end it
are called
digestifs.
- Apéritifs
The apéritif varies from region to region:
Pastis
is popular in the south of France,
Crémant d'Alsace in the eastern region.
Champagne can also be served.
Kir, also called « Blanc-cassis », is a common and popular
apéritif-cocktail made with a measure of
crème de cassis (blackcurrant liqueur) topped up with
white wine. The word Kir Royal is used when white wine is
replaced with a Champagne wine. A simple glass of red wine, such
as
Beaujolais nouveau, can also be presented as an apéritif,
accompanied by
amuse-bouches. Some apéritifs can be
fortified wines with added herbs, such as
cinchona,
gentian and
vermouth. Trade names that sell well include
Suze (the classic gentiane),
Byrrh,
Dubonnet,
Noilly Prat.
- Digestifs
Digestifs are traditionally stronger, and include
Cognac,
Armagnac,
Calvados and fruit alcohols.
Food
establishments
History
The modern restaurant has its origins in French culture. Prior to the
late 18th century, diners who wished to "dine out" would visit their
local guild
member's kitchen and have their meal prepared for them. However, guild
members were limited to producing whatever their guild registry
delegated them to.[16]:8–10
These guild members offered food in their own homes to steady clientele
that appeared day-to-day but at set times. The guest would be offered
the meal
table d'hôte, which is a meal offered at a set price with very
little choice of dishes, sometimes none at all.[16]:30–31
The first steps toward the modern restaurant were locations that
offered restorative
bouillons, or restaurants – these words being the origin of
the name "restaurant". This step took place during the 1760s – 1770s.
These locations were open at all times of the day, featuring ornate
tableware and reasonable prices. These locations were meant more as meal
replacements for those who had "lost their appetites and suffered from
jaded palates and weak chests."[16]:34–35
In 1782 Antoine Beauvilliers,
pastry chef to the future
Louis XVIII, opened one of the most popular restaurants of the time
– the Grande Taverne de Londres – in the arcades of the
Palais-Royal. Other restaurants were opened by chefs of the time who
were leaving the failing monarchy of France, in the period leading up to
the French Revolution. It was these restaurants that expanded upon the
limited menus of decades prior, and led to the full restaurants that
were completely legalized with the advent of the French Revolution and
abolition of the guilds. This and the substantial discretionary income
of the
French Directory's
nouveau riche helped keep these new restaurants in business.[16]:140–144
Restaurant Le Train Bleu, in Paris
A bouchon, Le tablier (the apron), in Vieux Lyon
Categories
English |
French |
Description |
Restaurant |
More than 5,000 in Paris alone, with varying levels of
prices and menus. Open at certain times of the day, and normally
closed one day of the week. Patrons select items from a printed
menu.
Some offer regional menus, while others offer a modern styled
menu. Waiters and waitresses are trained and knowledgeable
professionals. By law, a prix-fixe menu must be offered,
although high-class restaurants may try to conceal the fact. Few
French restaurants cater to vegetarians. The
Guide Michelin rates many of the better restaurants in this
category.[10]:30 |
Bistro(t) |
Often smaller than a restaurant and many times using chalk
board or verbal menus. Wait staff may well be untrained. Many
feature a regional cuisine. Notable dishes include
coq au vin,
pot-au-feu,
confit de canard, calves' liver and
entrecôte.[10]:30 |
Bistrot à Vin |
Similar to
cabarets or
tavernes of the past in France. Some offer inexpensive
alcoholic drinks, while others take pride in offering a full
range of vintage
AOC wines. The foods in some are simple, including sausages,
ham and cheese, while others offer dishes similar to what can be
found in a bistro.[10]:30 |
Bouchon |
Found in
Lyon,
they produce traditional Lyonnaise cuisine, such as sausages,
duck pâté or roast pork. The dishes can be quite fatty, and
heavily oriented around meat. There are about twenty officially
certified traditional bouchons, but a larger number of
establishments describing themselves using the term.[17] |
Brewery |
Brasserie |
These establishments were created in the 1870s by refugees
from
Alsace-Lorraine. These establishments serve beer, but most
serve wines from Alsace such as
Riesling,
Sylvaner, and
Gewürztraminer. The most popular dishes are
choucroute and
seafood dishes.[10]:30
In general, a brasserie is open all day every day, offering the
same menu.[18] |
Café |
Primarily locations for coffee and alcoholic drinks. Tables
and chairs are usually set outside, and prices marked up
somewhat en terrasse. The limited foods sometimes offered
include
croque-monsieur, salads,
moules-frites (mussels
and
pommes frites) when in season. Cafés often open
early in the morning and shut down around nine at night.[10]:30 |
Salon de Thé |
These locations are more similar to cafés in the rest of the
world. These tearooms often offer a selection of cakes and do
not offer alcoholic drinks. Many offer simple snacks, salads,
and sandwiches. Teas, hot chocolate, and chocolat à l'ancienne
(a popular chocolate drink) offered as well. These locations
often open just prior to noon for lunch and then close late
afternoon.[10]:30 |
Bar |
Based on the American style, many were built at the
beginning of the 20th century (particularly around World War I,
when young American expatriates were quite common in France,
particularly Paris). These locations serve cocktails, whiskey,
pastis and other alcoholic drinks.[10]:30 |
Estaminet |
Typical of the
Nord-Pas-de-Calais region, these small bars/restaurants used
to be a central place for farmers, mine or textile workers to
meet and socialize. Alongside the usual beverages (beers and
liquors), one could order basic regional dishes, as well as play
various indoor games. These estaminets almost disappeared, but
are now considered a part of Nord-Pas-de-Calais history, and
therefore preserved and promoted. |
Restaurant staff
Larger restaurants and hotels in France employ extensive staff and
are commonly referred to as either the kitchen brigade for the
kitchen staff or dining room brigade system for the dining room
staff. This system was created by
Georges Auguste Escoffier. This structured team system delegates
responsibilities to different individuals that specialize in certain
tasks. The following is a list of positions held both in the kitchen and
dining rooms brigades in France:[10]:32
Staff
Section |
French |
English |
Duty |
Kitchen brigade |
Chef de cuisine |
Head chef |
Responsible for overall management of kitchen. They
supervise staff, create menus and new recipes with the
assistance of the restaurant manager, make purchases of raw food
items, trains apprentices and maintains a sanitary and hygienic
environment for the preparation of food.[10]:32 |
Sous-chef de cuisine |
Deputy Head chef |
Receives orders directly from the chef de cuisine for
the management of the kitchen and often represents the chef
de cuisine when he or she is not present.[10]:32 |
Chef de partie |
Senior chef |
Responsible for managing a given station in the kitchen
where they specialize in preparing particular dishes. Those that
work in a lesser station are referred to as a demi-chef.[10]:32 |
Cuisinier |
Cook |
This position is an independent one where they usually
prepare specific dishes in a station. They may be referred to as
a cuisinier de partie.[10]:32 |
Commis |
Junior cook |
Also works in a specific station, but reports directly to
the chef de partie and takes care of the tools for the
station.[10]:32 |
Apprenti(e) |
Apprentice |
Many times they are students gaining theoretical and
practical training in school and work experience in the kitchen.
They perform preparatory work and/or cleaning work.[10]:30 |
Plongeur |
Dishwasher |
Cleans dishes and utensils and may be entrusted with basic
preparatory job.[10]:32 |
Marmiton |
Pot and pan washer |
In larger restaurants takes care of all the pots and pans
instead of the plongeur.[10]:33 |
Saucier |
Saucemaker/Sauté cook |
Prepares
sauces, warm
hors d'œuvres, completes meat dishes and in smaller
restaurants may work on fish dishes and prepares sautéed items.
This is one of the most respected positions in the kitchen
brigade.[10]:32 |
Rôtisseur |
Roast cook |
Manages a team of cooks that roasts, broils and deep fries
dishes.[10]:32 |
Grillardin |
Grill cook |
In a larger kitchen this person prepares the grilled foods
instead of the rôtisseur.[19]:8 |
Friturier |
Fry cook |
In larger kitchens this person prepares fried foods instead
of the rôtisseur.[19] |
Poissonnier |
Fish cook |
Prepares fish and seafood dishes.[10]:33 |
Entremetier |
Entrée preparer |
Prepares soups and other dishes not involving meat or fish,
including vegetable dishes and egg dishes.[10]:32 |
Potager |
soup cook |
In larger kitchens this person reports to the entremetier
and prepares the soups.[19] |
Legumier |
Vegetable cook |
In larger kitchen this person also reports to the
entremetier and prepares the vegetable dishes.[19] |
Garde manger |
Pantry supervisor |
responsible for preparation of cold
hors d'œuvres, prepares salads, organizes large buffet
displays and prepares
charcuterie items.[10]:30 |
Tournant |
Spare hand/ roundsperson |
Moves throughout kitchen assisting other positions in
kitchen |
Pâtissier |
Pastry cook |
Prepares desserts and other meal end sweets and for location
without a boulanger also prepares breads and other baked
items. They may also prepare pasta for the restaurant.[10]:33 |
Confiseur |
Prepares candies and
petit fours in larger restaurants instead of the
pâtissier.[19] |
Glacier |
Prepares frozen and cold desserts in larger restaurants
instead of the pâtissier.[19] |
Décorateur |
Prepares show pieces and specialty cakes in larger
restaurants instead of the pâtissier.[19]:8–9 |
Boulanger |
Baker |
Prepares bread, cakes and breakfast pastries in larger
restaurants instead of the pâtissier.[10]:33 |
Boucher |
Butcher |
butchers meats, poultry and sometimes fish. May also be in
charge of breading meat and fish items.[19] |
Aboyeur |
Announcer/ expediter |
Takes orders from dining room and distributes them to the
various stations. This position may also be performed by the
sous-chef de partie.[19] |
Communard |
Prepares the meal served to the restaurant staff.[19] |
Garçon de cuisine |
Performs preparatory and auxiliary work for support in
larger restaurants.[10]:33 |
Dining room brigade |
Directeur de la restauration |
General manager |
Oversees economic and administrative duties for all food
related business in large hotels or similar facilities including
multiple restaurants, bars, catering and other events.[10]:33 |
Directeur de restaurant |
Restaurant manager |
Responsible for the operation of the restaurant dining room
which includes managing staff, hiring and firing staff, training
of staff and economic duties of the such matters. In larger
establishments there may be an assistant to this position who
would replace this person in their absence.[10]:33 |
Maître d'hôtel |
Welcomes guests, and seats them at tables. They also
supervise the service staff. It is this person that commonly
deals with complaints and verifies patron bills.[10]:33 |
Chef de salle |
Commonly in charge of service for the full dining room in
larger establishments; this position can be combined into the
maître d'hotel position.[19] |
Chef de rang |
The dining room is separated into sections called rangs.
Each rang is supervised by this person to coordinate
service with the kitchen.[10]:33 |
Demi-chef de rang |
Back server |
Clears plates between courses if there is no
commis débarrasseur, fills water glasses and assists the
chef de rang.[19] |
commis de rang |
Commis
débarrasseur |
Clears plates between courses and the table at the end of
the meal.[10]:33 |
Commis de suite |
In larger establishments, this person brings the different
courses from the kitchen to the table.[10]:33 |
Chef d'étage |
Captain |
Explains the menu to the guest and answers any questions.
This person often performs the tableside food preparations. This
position may be combined with the chef de rang in smaller
establishment.[19] |
Chef de vin |
Wine server |
Manages wine cellar by purchasing and organizing
as well as preparing the wine list. This person also advises the
guest on wine choices and serves it.[10]:33 |
Sommelier |
chef sommelier |
In larger establishments, this person will
manage a team of sommeliers.[10]:33 |
chef caviste |
Serveur de restaurant |
Server |
This position found in smaller establishments performs the
multiple duties of various positions in the larger restaurants
in the service of food and drink to the guest.[10]:33 |
Responsable de bar |
Bar manager |
Manages the bar in a restaurant which includes
ordering and creating drink menus; they also oversee the hiring,
training and firing of barmen. Also manages multiple bars in a
hotel or other similar establishment.[10]:33 |
Chef de bar |
Barman |
Bartender |
Serves alcoholic drinks to guests.[10]:33 |
Dame du vestiaire |
Coat room attendant who receives and returns guests coats
and hats.[10]:33 |
Voituriers |
Valet |
Parks guests' cars and retrieves them upon the guests
exiting the restaurant.[10]:33 |
See also
References
-
^
Bon appétit: Your meal is certified by the UN Dallas Morning
News
-
^
Source: Unescopress (2010-11-16).
"Celebrations, healing techniques, crafts and culinary arts
added to the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural
Heritage". Unesco.org.
Retrieved 2012-06-04.
-
^ S.R. Labgensky,
A.M. Hause (1999) On Cooking, Prentice Hall
ISBN 0-13-862640-5
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
k
l
m
Wheaton, Barbara Ketcham (1996). Savoring the Past: The
French Kitchen and Table from 1300 to 1789. New York: First
Touchstone.
ISBN 978-0-684-81857-3.
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
Mennell, Stephen (1996). All Manners of Food: eating and
taste in England and France from the Middle Ages to the present,
2nd ed. Chicago: University of Illinois Press.
ISBN 978-0-252-06490-6.
-
^
Escoffier, Georges Auguste (2002).
Escoffier: The Complete Guide to the Art of Modern Cookery.
New York: John Wiley and Sons. pp. Foreword.
ISBN 978-0-471-29016-2.
-
^ Joyeuse
encyclopédie anecdotique de la gastronomie,
Michel Ferracci-Porri and Maryline Paoli, Preface by
Chistian Millau, Ed. Normant 2012, France
ISBN 978-2-915685-55-8
-
^
Hewitt, Nicholas (2003). The
Cambridge Companion to Modern French Culture. Cambridge: The
Cambridge University Press. pp. 109–110.
ISBN 978-0-521-79465-7.
-
^
"French Country Cooking."
French-country-decor-guide.com. Accessed July 2011.
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
k
l
m
n
o
p
q
r
s
t
u
v
w
x
y
z
aa
ab
ac
ad
ae
af
ag
ah
ai
aj
ak
al
am
an
ao
ap
aq
ar
as
at
au
av
aw
Dominé,
André. Culinaria France. Cologne: Könemann
Verlagsgesellschaft mbh.
ISBN 978-3-8331-1129-7.
-
^
"Christmas traditions". Provenceweb.fr.
Retrieved 2012-06-04.
-
^ Imported crayfish
are unrestricted, and many arrive from Pakistan.
-
^
Larousse Gastronomique. New
York: Clarkson Potter. 2009. p. 780.
ISBN 978-0-307-46491-0.
- ^
a
b
Steele,
Ross (2001). The French Way, 2nd ed. New York:
McGraw-Hill.
- ^
a
b
Foder's
(2006). See It. France. 2nd ed. New York: Foder's Travel
Publications.
- ^
a
b
c
d
Spang,
Rebecca L. (2001). The Invention of the Restaurant, 2nd Ed.
Harvard University Press.
ISBN 978-0-674-00685-0.
-
^
Boudou, Ballious Evelyne; Jean-Marc
Boudou (2003). Les bonnes recettes des bouchons lyonnais.
Seyssinet: Libris.
ISBN 978-2-84799-002-7.
-
^
Les brasseries ont toujours
l'avantage d'offrir un service continu tout au long de
la journée, d'accueillir les clients après le spectacle
et d'être ouvertes sept jours sur sept, quand les
restaurants ferment deux jours et demi par semaine.
Brasseries have the advantage of offering uninterrupted
service all day, seven days a week, and of being open
for the after-theatre crowd, whereas restaurants are
closed two and a half days of the week.
—Jean-Claude Ribaut, Le
Monde, 8 February 2007
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
k
l
m
The Culinary Institute of America (2006). The
Professional Chef, 8th Ed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons.
ISBN 978-0-7645-5734-7.
Further reading
- Patrick Rambourg, Histoire de la cuisine et de la gastronomie
françaises, Paris, Ed. Perrin (coll. tempus n° 359), 2010, 381
pages.
ISBN 978-2-262-03318-7
External links
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1)
scrivi
le parole inglesi dentro la
striscia gialla 2)
seleziona il testo 3)
clicca "Ascolta il testo"
DA INGLESE A ITALIANO
Inserire
nella casella Traduci la parola
INGLESE e cliccare
Go.
DA ITALIANO A INGLESE
Impostare INGLESE anziché italiano e
ripetere la procedura descritta.
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