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WIKIMAG n. 6 - Maggio 2013
Old English
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Old English (Ænglisc, Anglisc, Englisc) or
Anglo-Saxon[1]
is an early form of the
English language that was spoken and written by the
Anglo-Saxons and their descendants in parts of what are now England
and southern and eastern Scotland, more specifically in the England Old
Period, between at least the mid-5th century and the mid-12th century.
What survives through writing represents primarily the literary register
of Anglo-Saxon.
It is a
West Germanic language closely related to
Old Frisian and
Old
Saxon. Old English had a grammar similar in many ways to
Classical Latin. In most respects, including its grammar, it was
much closer to modern
German and
Icelandic than to modern English. It was fully
inflected with five
grammatical cases (nominative,
accusative,
genitive,
dative, and
instrumental), three
grammatical numbers (singular,
plural,
and
dual) and three
grammatical genders (masculine,
feminine, and
neuter). The dual forms occurred in the first and second persons
only and referred to groups of two.
Adjectives, pronouns and (sometimes) participles agreed with their
antecedent nouns in case, number and gender. Finite verbs agreed with
their subject in person and number.
Nouns
came in numerous
declensions (with deep parallels in
Latin,
Ancient Greek and
Sanskrit).
Verbs came in nine main
conjugations (seven strong and two weak), each with
numerous subtypes, as well as a few additional smaller conjugations and
a handful of irregular verbs. The main difference from other ancient
Indo-European languages, such as
Latin, is
that verbs can be conjugated in only two tenses (vs. the six "tenses" –
really tense/aspect combinations – of Latin), and have no synthetic
passive voice (although it did still exist in
Gothic).
Gender in
nouns was
grammatical, as opposed to the
natural gender that prevails in modern English. That is, the
grammatical gender of a given noun did not necessarily correspond to its
natural gender, even for nouns referring to people. For example, sēo
sunne (the
Sun) was
feminine, se
mōna (the
Moon) was
masculine, and þat
wīf "the woman/wife" was neuter. (Compare
German cognates die Sonne, der Mond, das Weib.)
Pronominal usage could reflect either natural or grammatical gender,
when it conflicted.
From the 9th century, Old English experienced heavy influence from
Old Norse, a member of the related
North Germanic group of
languages.
History
The distribution of the primary
Germanic dialect groups in Europe in around AD 1:
Old English was not static, and its usage covered a period of 700
years, from the
Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain in the 5th century to the late
11th century, sometime after the
Norman invasion.
Old English is a
West Germanic language, developing out of
Ingvaeonic (also known as North Sea Germanic) dialects from the 5th
century. Anglo-Saxon literacy developed after
Christianisation in the late 7th century. The oldest surviving text
of
Old English literature is
Cædmon's Hymn, composed between 658 and 680. There is a limited
corpus of
runic inscriptions from the 5th to 7th centuries, but the oldest
coherent runic texts (notably
Franks Casket) date to the 8th century.
The history of Old English can be subdivided into:
- Prehistoric Old English (c. 450 to 650); for this period, Old
English is mostly a
reconstructed language as no literary witnesses survive (with
the exception of limited
epigraphic evidence). This language, or bloc of languages,
spoken by the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, and pre-dating documented
Old English or Anglo-Saxon, has also been called Primitive Old
English.[2]
- Early Old English (c. 650 to 900), the period of the oldest
manuscript traditions, with authors such as
Cædmon,
Bede,
Cynewulf and
Aldhelm.
- Late Old English (c. 900 to 1066), the final stage of the
language leading up to the
Norman conquest of England and the subsequent transition to
Early Middle English.
The Old English period is followed by
Middle English (12th to 15th century),
Early Modern English (ca. 1480 to 1650) and finally
Modern English (after 1650).
Influence of other languages
In the course of the
Early Middle Ages, Old English assimilated some aspects of a few
languages with which it came in contact, such as the two dialects of Old
Norse from the contact with the
Norsemen or "Danes" who by the late 9th century controlled large
tracts of land in northern and eastern England, which came to be known
as the
Danelaw.
Latin influence
A large percentage of the educated and literate population of the
time were competent in
Latin,
which was the scholarly and diplomatic
lingua franca of Europe. It is sometimes possible to give
approximate dates for the entry of individual Latin words into Old
English based on which patterns of linguistic change they have
undergone. There were at least three notable periods of Latin influence.
The first occurred before the ancestral
Angles
and
Saxons left continental Europe for Britain. The second began when
the Anglo-Saxons were converted to Christianity and Latin-speaking
priests became widespread. See
Latin influence in English: Dark Ages for details.
The third and largest single transfer of Latin-based words happened
after the
Norman Conquest of 1066, when an enormous number of
Norman (Old French) words began to influence the language. Most of
these
Oïl language words were themselves derived from
Old
French and ultimately from
classical Latin, although a notable stock of Norse words were
introduced or re-introduced in
Norman
form. The Norman Conquest approximately marks the end of Old English and
the advent of
Middle English.
One of the ways the influence of Latin can be seen is that many Latin
words for activities came to also be used to refer to the people engaged
in those activities, an idiom carried over from Anglo-Saxon but using
Latin words.[citation
needed] This can be seen in words like militia,
assembly, movement, and service.
The language was further altered by the transition away from the
runic alphabet (also known as
futhorc or fuþorc) to the
Latin alphabet, which was also a significant factor in the
developmental pressures brought to bear on the language. Old English
words were spelled, more or less, as they were pronounced. Often, the
Latin alphabet fell short of being able to adequately represent
Anglo-Saxon phonetics. Spellings, therefore, can be thought of as
best-attempt approximations of how the language actually sounded.
The "silent" letters in many Modern English words were pronounced in
Old English: for example, the c and h in
cniht, the Old English ancestor of the modern knight,
were pronounced. Another side-effect of spelling Old English words
phonetically using the Latin alphabet was that spelling was extremely
variable. A word's spelling could also reflect differences in the
phonetics of the writer's regional dialect. Words also endured
idiosyncratic spelling choices of individual authors, some of whom
varied spellings between works. Thus, for example, the word and
could be spelt either and or ond.
Norse influence
The approximate extent of Old Norse and related languages in
the early 10th century:
Old West Norse dialect
Old East Norse dialect
Old English
The second major source of loanwords to Old English were the
Scandinavian words introduced during the Viking invasions of the 9th and
10th centuries. In addition to a great many
place names, these consist mainly of items of basic vocabulary, and
words concerned with particular administrative aspects of the
Danelaw
(that is, the area of land under Viking control, which included
extensive holdings all along the eastern coast of England and
Scotland).
The Vikings spoke
Old
Norse, a language related to Old English in that both derived from
the same ancestral Proto-Germanic language. It is very common for the
intermixing of speakers of different dialects, such as those that occur
during times of political unrest, to result in a
mixed language, and one theory holds that exactly such a mixture of
Old Norse and Old English helped accelerate the decline of case endings
in Old English.[3]
Apparent confirmation of this is the fact that simplification of the
case endings occurred earliest in the north and latest in the southwest,
the area farthest away from Viking influence. Regardless of the truth of
this theory, the
influence of Old Norse on the lexicon of the English language has
been profound: responsible for such basic vocabulary items as
sky,
leg, the
pronoun
they, the verb form
are, and hundreds of other words.[4]
Celtic influence
Traditionally, and following the
Anglo-Saxon preference prevalent in the nineteenth century, many
maintain that the influence of
Brythonic Celtic on English has been small, citing the small number
of Celtic
loanwords taken into the language. The number of Celtic loanwords is
of a lower order than either Latin or
Scandinavian. However, a more recent and still minority view is that
distinctive Celtic traits can be discerned in syntax from the post-Old
English period, such as the regular progressive construction and
analytic word order in opposition to the Germanic languages.[5]
Dialects
Old English should not be regarded as a single monolithic entity just
as
Modern English is also not monolithic. It emerged over time out of
the many dialects and languages of the colonising tribes, and it was not
until the later Anglo-Saxon period that they fused together into Old
English.[6]
Even then, it continued to exhibit local language variation, remnants of
which remain in Modern English dialects.[7]
Thus it is misleading, for example, to consider Old English as having
a single sound system. Rather, there were multiple Old English sound
systems. Old English has variation along regional lines as well as
variation across different times.
For example, the language attested in
Wessex
during the time of
Æthelwold of Winchester, which is named Late
West Saxon (or Æthelwoldian Saxon), is considerably different from
the language attested in Wessex during the time of
Alfred the Great's court, which is named Early West Saxon (or
Classical West Saxon or Alfredian Saxon). Furthermore, the difference
between Early West Saxon and Late West Saxon is of such a nature that
Late West Saxon is not directly descended from Early West Saxon (despite
what the similarity in name implies).
The four main
dialectal forms of Old English were
Mercian,
Northumbrian,
Kentish, and
West Saxon.[8]
Each of those dialects was associated with an independent kingdom on the
island. Of these, all of
Northumbria and most of
Mercia
were overrun by the Vikings during the 9th century. The portion of
Mercia that was successfully defended and all of
Kent were then integrated into Wessex.
After the process of unification of the diverse Anglo-Saxon kingdoms
in 878 by Alfred the Great, there is a marked decline in the importance
of regional dialects. This is not because they stopped existing, as
evidenced both by the existence of Middle and later Modern English
dialects.
The first page of the
Beowulf manuscript
However, the bulk of the surviving documents from the Anglo-Saxon
period are written in the dialect of Wessex, Alfred's kingdom. It seems
likely that with consolidation of power, it became necessary to
standardise the language of government to reduce the difficulty of
administering the more remote areas of the kingdom. As a result,
documents were written in the West Saxon dialect. Not only this, but
Alfred was passionate about the spread of the
vernacular, and brought many scribes to his region from Mercia to
record previously unwritten texts.[9]
The
Church was affected likewise, especially since Alfred initiated an
ambitious programme to translate religious materials into English. To
retain his patronage and ensure the widest circulation of the translated
materials, the monks and priests engaged in the programme worked in his
dialect. Alfred himself seems to have translated books out of Latin and
into English, notably
Pope Gregory I's treatise on administration,
Pastoral Care.
Because of the centralisation of power and the Viking invasions,
there is little or no written evidence for the development of non-Wessex
dialects after Alfred's unification.
Thomas Spencer Baynes claimed in 1856 that, owing to its position at
the heart of the Kingdom of Wessex, the relics of Anglo-Saxon accent,
idiom and vocabulary were best preserved in the
Somerset dialect.[10]
Even after the maximum Anglo-Saxon expansion, Old English was never
spoken all over the Kingdom of England; not only was
Medieval Cornish spoken all over Cornwall, it was also spoken in
adjacent parts of Devon into the age of the Plantagenets, long after the
Norman Conquest.
Cumbric may have survived into the 12th century in parts of Cumbria
and Welsh may have been spoken on the English side of the
Border. In addition to the Celtic languages, Norse was spoken in
some areas under Dane-Law.
Phonology
The inventory of classical Old English (i.e. Late West Saxon) surface
phones, as usually reconstructed, is as follows.
The sounds marked in
parentheses in the chart above are
allophones:
-
[dʒ] is an allophone of
/j/ occurring after
/n/ and when
geminated
-
[ŋ] is an allophone of
/n/ occurring before
/k/ and
/ɡ/
-
[v, ð, z] are allophones of
/f, θ, s/ respectively, occurring between
vowels
or
voiced consonants
-
[ç, x] are allophones of
/h/ occurring in
coda position after front and back vowels respectively
-
[ɣ] is an allophone of
/ɡ/ occurring after a vowel, and, at an earlier stage of the
language, in the syllable onset.
The
front
mid
rounded vowels
/ø(ː)/ occur in some
dialects
of Old English, but not in the best attested
Late West Saxon dialect.
Diphthongs |
Short (monomoraic) |
Long (bimoraic) |
First element is close |
iy[11] |
iːy |
Both elements are mid |
eo |
eːo |
Both elements are open |
æɑ |
æːɑ |
Sound changes
The following table shows a possible sequence of changes for some
basic vocabulary items, leading from
Proto-Indo-European (PIE) to Modern English. The notation >!
indicates an unexpected change (the simple notation ">" indicates an
expected change). The notation "---" means no change at the given stage
for the given item. Only sound changes that had an effect on one or more
of the vocabulary items are shown.
|
one |
two |
three |
four |
five |
six |
seven |
mother |
heart |
hear |
Proto-Indo-European |
óinos |
dúoH |
trih₂ (fem.) |
kʷetwó:r |
pénkʷe |
seḱs |
septḿ |
méh₂te:r |
ḱe:rd |
h₂ḱousyónom |
PIE pronunciation |
óinos |
dúoh? |
triχ |
kʷetwó:r |
pénkʷe |
seks |
septḿ |
máχte:r |
ke:rd |
χkousjónom |
Laryngeal changes |
--- |
dúo: |
tría |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
má:te:r |
--- |
kousjónom |
Osthoff's Law |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
kerd |
--- |
Sievers' Law |
--- |
--- |
tríja |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
kousijónom |
Pre-Germanic unexpected changes |
--- |
>!
dwoi |
>!
tríja: |
>!
petwó:r |
>!
pémpe |
--- |
>!
sepḿt |
--- |
>!
kérd-o:n |
--- |
Vocalic resonant |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
sepúmt |
--- |
--- |
--- |
Final -m > -n |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
sepúnt |
--- |
--- |
kousijónon |
Grimm's Law |
--- |
twoi |
θríja: |
feθwó:r |
fémfe |
sehs |
sefúnt |
má:θe:r |
hérto:n |
housijónon |
Verner's Law |
oinoz |
--- |
θrija: |
feðwo:r |
femfe |
--- |
seβunt |
ma:θe:r |
herto:n |
houzijonon |
a ō > o ā |
ainaz |
twai |
θrijo: |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
mo:θe:r |
--- |
hauzijanan |
Nasal raising |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
fimfe |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
Proto-Germanic final reduction |
--- |
--- |
--- |
feðwo:r |
fimf |
--- |
seβun |
--- |
hertõ: |
hauzijanã |
Proto-Germanic form |
ainaz |
twai |
θrijo: |
feðwo:r |
fimf |
sehs |
seβun |
mo:θe:r |
hertõ: |
hauzijanã |
West Germanic (WG) final reduction |
ainz |
--- |
θriu |
feðwur |
--- |
--- |
--- |
mo:θer |
hertã >
herta |
hauzijan |
WG final -z loss |
ain |
--- |
--- |
feðwur |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
WG z > r |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
haurijan |
WG ðw > ww |
--- |
--- |
--- |
fewwur |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
Ingvaeonic nasal loss |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
fi:f |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
ai > ā |
a:n |
twa: |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
Anglo-Frisian brightening |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
hertæ |
hæurijan |
Old English (OE) i-mutation |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
heyrijan |
OE loss of i-mutation trigger |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
heyran |
OE intervocalic voicing |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
mo:ðer |
--- |
--- |
OE breaking |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
hĕŭrtæ |
--- |
OE diphthong height harmony |
--- |
--- |
--- |
feowur |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
hĕŏrtæ |
he:ran |
OE back mutation |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
sĕŏvun |
--- |
--- |
--- |
OE final reduction |
--- |
--- |
--- |
feowor |
--- |
--- |
sĕŏvon |
>!
mo:ðor |
hĕŏrte |
--- |
OE ehs eht > ihs iht |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
sihs |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
OE hs > ks |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
siks |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
Late OE iu > eo |
--- |
--- |
θreo |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
Late Old English spelling |
ān |
twā |
þrēo |
fēowor |
fīf |
six |
seofon |
mōþor |
heorte |
hēran |
Middle English (ME) smoothing |
--- |
--- |
θrø: |
fø:wor |
--- |
--- |
søvon |
--- |
hørte |
--- |
ME final reduction |
--- |
--- |
--- |
fø:wǝr |
--- |
--- |
søvǝn |
mo:ðǝr |
hørtǝ |
he:rǝn |
ME a: æ: > ɔ: ɛ: |
ɔ:n |
twɔ: |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
ME unexpected (?) vowel changes |
--- |
>!
two: |
--- |
--- |
>!
fi:v-ǝ |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
>!
hɛ:rǝn |
ME diphthong changes |
--- |
--- |
--- |
>!
fowǝr |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
Late ME unrounding |
--- |
--- |
θre: |
--- |
--- |
--- |
sevǝn |
--- |
hertǝ |
--- |
Late Middle English spelling |
oon |
two |
three |
fower |
five |
six |
seven |
mother |
herte |
heere(n) |
Late ME final reduction |
--- |
--- |
--- |
>!
fowr |
fi:v |
--- |
--- |
--- |
hert |
hɛ:r |
Late ME Great Vowel Shift |
o:n >!
wʊn |
twu: >
tu: |
θri: |
--- |
fǝiv |
--- |
--- |
mu:ðǝr |
--- |
he:r |
Early Modern English (EME) smoothing |
--- |
--- |
--- |
fo:r |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
EME shortening |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
mʊðǝr |
--- |
--- |
EME /ʊ/ > /ʌ/ |
wʌn |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
mʌðǝr |
--- |
--- |
EME /er/ > /ar/ |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
hart |
--- |
Later vowel shifts |
--- |
--- |
--- |
fɔ:r |
faiv |
sɪks |
--- |
--- |
hɑrt |
hi:r |
Loss of -r (incomplete) |
--- |
--- |
--- |
fɔ: |
--- |
--- |
--- |
mʌðǝ |
hɑ:t |
hiǝ |
Modern pronunciation |
wʌn |
tu: |
θri: |
fɔ:(r) |
faiv |
sɪks |
sevǝn |
mʌðǝ(r) |
hɑrt/hɑ:t |
hi:r/hiǝ |
|
one |
two |
three |
four |
five |
six |
seven |
mother |
heart |
hear |
NOTE: Some of the changes listed above as "unexpected" are more
predictable than others. For example:
-
tríja "three" >
tríja: and
ke:rd "heart" >
kérd-o:n are morphological changes that move a word from a
rare declension to a more common one, and hence are not so
surprising.
- On the other extreme, the Early Modern English change of
o:n "one" >!
wʊn is almost completely mysterious. Note that the related
words alone (< all + one) and only (<
one + -ly) did not change.
Grammar
Morphology
Unlike modern English, Old English is a
language rich with
morphological diversity. It maintains several distinct cases: the
nominative,
accusative,
genitive,
dative and (vestigially)
instrumental. The only remnants of this system in modern English are
in a few pronouns (the meanings of I (nominative) my
(genitive) and me (accusative/dative) in the first person provide
an example) and in the possessive ending "-'s", which derives from the
genitive ending "-es".
Syntax
Old English syntax was similar in many ways to that of modern
English. However, there were some important differences. Some were
simply consequences of the greater level of nominal and verbal
inflection – e.g., word order was generally freer. In addition:
- The default
word order was
verb-second and more like modern
German than modern English.
- There was no
do-support in questions and negatives.
- Multiple negatives could stack up in a sentence, and intensified
each other (negative
concord), which is not always the case in modern English
- Sentences with subordinate clauses of the type "when X, Y" (e.g.
"When I got home, I ate dinner") did not use a wh-type
conjunction, but rather used a th-type
correlative conjunction (e.g. þā X, þā Y in place of
"when X, Y"). The wh-type conjunctions were used only as
interrogative pronouns and
indefinite pronouns.
- Similarly, wh- forms were not used as
relative pronouns (as in "the man who saw me" or "the car that I
bought"). Instead, an indeclinable word þe was used, often in
conjunction with the
definite article (which was declined for case, number and
gender).
Orthography
Old English was first written in
runes (futhorc)
but shifted to a (minuscule)
half-uncial script of the
Latin alphabet introduced by Irish Christian missionaries[12]
from around the 9th century. This was replaced by
insular script, a cursive and pointed version of the half-uncial
script. This was used until the end of the 12th century when continental
Carolingian minuscule (also known as Caroline) replaced the
insular.
The letter
ðæt ⟨ð⟩ (called eth or edh in modern English) was an
alteration of Latin ⟨d⟩, and the runic letters
thorn ⟨þ⟩ and
wynn ⟨ƿ⟩
are borrowings from futhorc. Also used was a symbol for the
conjunction and, a character similar to the number seven (⟨⁊⟩,
called a
Tironian note), and a symbol for the
relative pronoun þæt, a thorn with a crossbar through the
ascender (⟨ꝥ⟩).
Macrons
⟨¯⟩ over vowels were rarely used to
indicate long vowels. Also used occasionally were abbreviations for a
following m or n. All of the sound descriptions below are
given using
IPA
symbols.
Conventions of modern editions
A number of changes are traditionally made in published modern
editions of the original Old English manuscripts. Some of these
conventions include the introduction of punctuation and the
substitutions of symbols. The symbols ⟨e⟩, ⟨f⟩, ⟨g⟩, ⟨r⟩, ⟨s⟩ are used
in modern editions, although their shapes in the insular script are
considerably different. The
long s
⟨ſ⟩ is substituted by its modern
counterpart ⟨s⟩.
Insular ⟨ᵹ⟩ is usually substituted with
its modern counterpart ⟨g⟩ (which is ultimately a Carolingian symbol).
Additionally, modern editions often distinguish between a
velar and
palatal ⟨c⟩ and ⟨g⟩ with diacritic dots above the putative palatals:
⟨ċ⟩, ⟨ġ⟩. The
wynn symbol ⟨ƿ⟩ is usually replaced
with ⟨w⟩. Macrons are usually found in modern editions to indicate
putative long vowels, while they are usually lacking in the originals.
In older printed editions of Old English works, an
acute accent mark was used to maintain cohesion between Old English
and Old Norse printing.
The alphabetical symbols found in Old English writings and their
substitute symbols found in modern editions are listed below:
Symbol |
Description and notes |
a |
Short
/ɑ/. Spelling variations like ⟨land⟩ ~ ⟨lond⟩ "land"
suggest it may have had a rounded
allophone
[ɒ] before
[n] in some cases) |
ā |
Long
/ɑː/. Rarely found in manuscripts, but usually
distinguished from short ⟨a⟩ in modern editions. |
æ |
Short
/æ/. Before 800 the digraph ⟨ae⟩ is often found instead
of ⟨æ⟩. During the 8th century ⟨æ⟩ began to be used more
frequently was standard after 800. In 9th century Kentish
manuscripts, a form of ⟨æ⟩ that was missing the upper hook of
the ⟨a⟩ part was used. Kentish ⟨æ⟩ may be either
/æ/ or
/e/ although this is difficult to determine. |
ǣ |
Long
/æː/. Rarely found in manuscripts, but usually
distinguished from short ⟨æ⟩ in modern editions. |
b |
Represented
/b/. Also represented
[v] in early texts before 800. For example, the word
"sheaves" is spelled ⟨scēabas⟩ in an early text but later (and
more commonly) as ⟨scēafas⟩. |
c |
Except in the
digraphs ⟨sc⟩, ⟨cg⟩, either
/tʃ/ or
/k/. The
/tʃ/ pronunciation is sometimes written with a
diacritic by modern editors: most commonly ⟨ċ⟩,
sometimes ⟨č⟩ or ⟨ç⟩. Before a consonant letter the
pronunciation is always
/k/; word-finally after ⟨i⟩ it is always
/tʃ/. Otherwise, a knowledge of the
historical linguistics of the word is needed to predict
which pronunciation is needed. (See
The distribution of velars and palatals in Old English for
details.) |
cg |
[ddʒ] (the surface pronunciation of
geminate
/jj/); occasionally also for
/ɡɡ/ |
d |
Represented
/d/. In the earliest texts, it also represented
/θ/ but was soon replaced by ⟨ð⟩ and ⟨þ⟩. For example,
the word meaning "thought" (lit. mood-i-think, with -i- as in
"handiwork") was written ⟨mōdgidanc⟩ in a Northumbrian text
dated 737, but later as ⟨mōdgeþanc⟩ in a 10th century West Saxon
text. |
ð |
Represented
/θ/ and its allophone
[ð]. Called ðæt in Old English (now called
eth in Modern English), ⟨ð⟩ is found in alternation with
thorn ⟨þ⟩ (both representing the same sound) although it is
more common in texts dating before Alfred. Together with ⟨þ⟩ it
replaced earlier ⟨d⟩ and ⟨th⟩. First attested (in definitely
dated materials) in the 7th century. After the beginning of
Alfred's time, ⟨ð⟩ was used more frequently for medial and
final positions while ⟨þ⟩ became increasingly used in initial
positions, although both still varied. Some modern editions
attempt to regularise the variation between ⟨þ⟩ and ⟨ð⟩ by using
only ⟨þ⟩.[13] |
e |
Short
/e/. |
ę |
Either Kentish
/æ/ or
/e/ although this is difficult to determine. A modern
editorial substitution for a form of ⟨æ⟩ missing the upper hook
of the ⟨a⟩ found in 9th century texts. |
ē |
Long
/eː/. Rarely found in manuscripts, but usually
distinguished from short ⟨e⟩ in modern editions. |
ea |
Short
/æɑ/; after ⟨ċ⟩, ⟨ġ⟩,
sometimes
/æ/ or
/ɑ/. |
ēa |
Long
/æːɑ/. Rarely found in manuscripts, but usually
distinguished from short ⟨ea⟩ in modern editions. After ⟨ċ⟩,
⟨ġ⟩, sometimes
/æː/. |
eo |
Short
/eo/; after ⟨ċ⟩, ⟨ġ⟩,
sometimes
/o/ |
ēo |
Long
/eːo/. Rarely found in manuscripts, but usually
distinguished from short ⟨eo⟩ in modern editions. |
f |
/f/ and its allophone
[v] |
g |
/ɡ/ and its allophone
[ɣ];
/j/ and its allophone
[dʒ] (when after ⟨n⟩). In Old English manuscripts, this
letter usually took its
insular form ⟨ᵹ⟩. The
/j/ and
[dʒ] pronunciations are sometimes written ⟨ġ⟩
by modern editors. Before a consonant letter the pronunciation
is always
[ɡ] (word-initially) or
[ɣ] (after a vowel). Word-finally after ⟨i⟩ it is always
/j/. Otherwise a knowledge of the
historical linguistics of the word in question is needed to
predict which pronunciation is needed. (See
The distribution of velars and palatals in Old English for
details.) |
h |
/h/ and its allophones
[ç, x]. In the combinations ⟨hl⟩, ⟨hr⟩, ⟨hn⟩, ⟨hw⟩, the
second consonant was certainly voiceless. |
i |
Short
/i/. |
ī |
Long
/iː/. Rarely found in manuscripts, but usually
distinguished from short ⟨i⟩ in modern editions. |
ie |
Short
/iy/; after ⟨ċ⟩, ⟨ġ⟩,
sometimes
/e/. |
īe |
Long
/iːy/. Rarely found in manuscripts, but usually
distinguished from short ⟨ie⟩ in modern editions. After ⟨ċ⟩,
⟨ġ⟩, sometimes
/eː/. |
k |
/k/ (rarely used) |
l |
/l/; probably
velarised (as in Modern English) when in
coda position. |
m |
/m/ |
n |
/n/ and its allophone
[ŋ] |
o |
Short
/o/. |
ō |
Long
/oː/. Rarely found in manuscripts, but usually
distinguished from short ⟨o⟩ in modern editions. |
oe |
Short
/ø/ (in dialects with this sound). |
ōe |
Long
/øː/ (in dialects with this sound). Rarely found in
manuscripts, but usually distinguished from short ⟨oe⟩ in modern
editions. |
p |
/p/ |
qu |
A rare spelling of
/kw/, which was usually written as ⟨cƿ⟩
(= ⟨cw⟩ in modern editions).[14] |
r |
/r/; the exact nature of
/r/ is not known. It may have been an
alveolar approximant
[ɹ] as in most modern accents, an
alveolar flap
[ɾ], or an
alveolar trill
[r]. |
s |
/s/ and its allophone
[z]. |
sc |
/ʃ/ or occasionally
/sk/. |
t |
/t/ |
th |
Represented
/θ/ in the earliest texts but was soon replaced by ⟨ð⟩
and ⟨þ⟩. For example, the word meaning "thought" was written
⟨mōdgithanc⟩ in an 8th century Northumbrian text, but later as
⟨mōdgeþanc⟩ in a 10th century West Saxon text. |
þ |
An alternative symbol called
thorn used instead of ⟨ð⟩. Represents
/θ/ and its allophone
[ð]. Together with ⟨ð⟩ it replaced the earlier ⟨d⟩ and
⟨th⟩. First attested (in definitely dated materials) in the 8th
century. Less common than ⟨ð⟩ before
Alfred's time, from then onward ⟨þ⟩ was used increasingly
more frequently than ⟨ð⟩ at the beginning of words while its
occurrence at the end and in the middle of words was rare. Some
modern editions attempt to regularise the variation between ⟨þ⟩
and ⟨ð⟩ by using only ⟨þ⟩. |
u |
/u/ and
/w/ in early texts of continental scribes. The
/w/ ⟨u⟩ was eventually replaced by ⟨ƿ⟩
outside of the north of the island. |
uu |
/w/ in early texts of continental scribes. Outside of the
north, it was generally replaced by ⟨ƿ⟩. |
ū |
Long
/uː/. Rarely found in manuscripts, but usually
distinguished from short ⟨u⟩ in modern editions. |
w |
/w/. A modern substitution for ⟨ƿ⟩. |
ƿ |
Runic
wynn.
Represents
/w/, replaced in modern print by ⟨w⟩ to prevent confusion
with ⟨p⟩. |
x |
/ks/ (but according to some authors,
[xs ~ çs]) |
y |
Short
/y/. |
ȳ |
Long
/yː/. Rarely found in manuscripts, but usually
distinguished from short ⟨y⟩ in modern editions. |
z |
/ts/. A rare spelling for ⟨ts⟩. Example:
/betst/ "best" is rarely spelled ⟨bezt⟩ for more common
⟨betst⟩. |
Doubled consonants are
geminated; the geminate fricatives ⟨ðð⟩/⟨þþ⟩, ⟨ff⟩ and ⟨ss⟩ cannot
be voiced.
Literature
Old English literature, though more abundant than literature of the
continent before
AD 1000[citation
needed][specify]
is nonetheless scant. In his supplementary article to the 1935
posthumous edition of Bright's Anglo-Saxon Reader, Dr. James
Hulbert writes:
In such historical conditions, an incalculable amount of the
writings of the Anglo-Saxon period perished. What they
contained, how important they were for an understanding of
literature before the Conquest, we have no means of knowing: the
scant catalogs of monastic libraries do not help us, and there
are no references in extant works to other compositions....How
incomplete our materials are can be illustrated by the
well-known fact that, with few and relatively unimportant
exceptions, all extant Anglo-Saxon poetry is preserved in four
manuscripts.
Some of the most important surviving works of Old English literature
are
Beowulf, an
epic poem; the
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, a record of early English history; the
Franks Casket, an early whalebone artefact; and
Caedmon's Hymn, a Christian religious poem. There are also a number
of extant prose works, such as sermons and saints' lives, biblical
translations, and translated Latin works of the early Church Fathers,
legal documents, such as laws and wills, and practical works on grammar,
medicine, and geography. Still, poetry is considered the heart of Old
English literature. Nearly all Anglo-Saxon authors are anonymous, with a
few exceptions, such as
Bede and
Caedmon.
Text samples
Beowulf
The first example is taken from the opening lines of the epic poem
Beowulf.
This passage describes how
Hrothgar's legendary ancestor
Scyld was found as a baby, washed ashore, and adopted by a noble
family. The translation is literal and represents the original poetic
word order. As such, it is not typical of Old English prose. The modern
cognates of original words have been used whenever practical to give a
close approximation of the feel of the original poem.
The words in brackets are implied in the Old English by noun case and
the bold words in parentheses are explanations of words that have
slightly different meanings in a modern context. Notice how what
is used by the poet where a word like lo or behold would
be expected. This usage is similar to what-ho!, both an
expression of surprise and a call to attention.
Line |
Original |
Translation |
[1] |
Hwæt! wē Gār-Dena in ġeār-dagum, |
What! We of Gare-Danes (lit. Spear-Danes) in
yore-days, |
[2] |
þēod-cyninga, þrym ġefrūnon, |
of thede(nation/people)-kings, did thrum (glory)
frayne (learn about by asking), |
[3] |
hū ðā æþelingas ellen fremedon. |
how those athelings (noblemen) did ellen
(fortitude/courage/zeal) freme (promote). |
[4] |
Oft Scyld Scēfing sceaþena þrēatum, |
Oft did Scyld Scefing of scather threats (troops), |
[5] |
monegum mǣġþum, meodosetla oftēah, |
of many maegths (clans; cf. Irish cognate Mac-), of
mead-settees atee (deprive), |
[6] |
egsode eorlas. Syððan ǣrest wearð |
[and] ugg (induce loathing in, terrify; related to
"ugly") earls. Sith (since, as of when) erst
(first) [he] worthed (became) |
[7] |
fēasceaft funden, hē þæs frōfre ġebād, |
[in] fewship (destitute) found, he of this frover
(comfort) abode, |
[8] |
wēox under wolcnum, weorðmyndum þāh, |
[and] waxed under welkin (firmament/clouds), [and
amid] worthmint (honour/worship) threed
(throve/prospered) |
[9] |
oðþæt him ǣġhwylc þāra ymbsittendra |
oth that (until that) him each of those umsitters
(those "sitting" or dwelling roundabout) |
[10] |
ofer hronrāde hȳran scolde, |
over whale-road (kenning
for "sea") hear should, |
[11] |
gomban gyldan. Þæt wæs gōd cyning! |
[and] yeme (heed/obedience; related to "gormless")
yield. That was [a] good king! |
A semi-fluent translation in Modern English would be:
Lo! We have heard of majesty of the Spear-Danes, of those
nation-kings in the days of yore, and how those noblemen promoted zeal.
Scyld Scefing took away mead-benches from bands of enemies, from many
tribes; he terrified earls. Since he was first found destitute (he
gained consolation for that) he grew under the heavens, prospered in
honours, until each of those who lived around him over the sea had to
obey him, give him tribute. That was a good king!
The Lord's Prayer
This text of the
Lord's Prayer is presented in the standardised West Saxon literary
dialect, with added macrons for vowel length, markings for probable
palatalized consonants, modern punctuation, and the replacement of the
letter wynn
with w.
Line |
Original |
Translation |
[1] |
Fæder ūre þū þe eart on heofonum, |
Father of ours, thou who art in heavens, |
[2] |
Sī þīn nama ġehālgod. |
Be thy name hallowed. |
[3] |
Tōbecume þīn
rīċe, |
Come thy
riche
(kingdom), |
[4] |
ġewurþe þīn willa, on eorðan swā swā on heofonum. |
Worth (manifest) thy will, on earth as also in
heaven. |
[5] |
Ūre ġedæġhwāmlīcan hlāf syle ūs tō dæġ, |
Our daily loaf do sell (give) to us today, |
[6] |
and forġyf ūs ūre gyltas, swā swā wē forġyfað ūrum
gyltendum. |
And forgive us our guilts as also we forgive our guilters
[15] |
[7] |
And ne ġelǣd þū ūs on costnunge, ac ālȳs ūs of yfele. |
And do not lead thou us into temptation, but alese
(release/deliver) us of (from) evil. |
[8] |
Sōþlīċe. |
Soothly. |
Charter of Cnut
This is a proclamation from King
Cnut the Great to his
earl
Thorkell the Tall and the English people written in AD 1020. Unlike
the previous two examples, this text is prose rather than poetry. For
ease of reading, the passage has been divided into sentences while the
pilcrows
represent the original division.
Original |
Translation |
¶ Cnut cyning gret his arcebiscopas and his leod-biscopas
and Þurcyl eorl and ealle his eorlas and ealne his þeodscype,
twelfhynde and twyhynde, gehadode and læwede, on Englalande
freondlice. |
¶ Cnut, king, greets his archbishops and his lede'(people's)'-bishops
and Thorkell, earl, and all his earls and all his peopleship,
greater (having a 1200
shilling
weregild) and lesser (200 shilling
weregild), hooded(ordained to priesthood) and lewd(lay),
in England friendly. |
And ic cyðe eow, þæt ic wylle beon hold hlaford and
unswicende to godes gerihtum and to rihtre woroldlage. |
And I kithe(make known/couth to) you, that I will be
[a] hold(civilised) lord and unswiking(uncheating)
to God's rights(laws) and to [the] rights(laws)
worldly. |
¶ Ic nam me to gemynde þa gewritu and þa word, þe se
arcebiscop Lyfing me fram þam papan brohte of Rome, þæt ic
scolde æghwær godes lof upp aræran and unriht alecgan and full
frið wyrcean be ðære mihte, þe me god syllan wolde. |
¶ I nam(took) me to mind the writs and the word that
the
Archbishop Lyfing me from the Pope brought of Rome, that I
should ayewhere(everywhere) God's love(praise)
uprear(promote), and unright(outlaw) lies, and
full frith(peace) work(bring about) by the might
that me God would(wished) [to] sell'(give). |
¶ Nu ne wandode ic na minum sceattum, þa hwile þe eow unfrið
on handa stod: nu ic mid godes fultume þæt totwæmde mid minum
scattum. |
¶ Now, ne went(withdrew/changed) I not my shot(financial
contribution, cf. Norse cognate in scot-free) the while that
you stood(endured) unfrith(turmoil) on-hand: now
I, mid(with) God's support, that [unfrith]
totwemed(separated/dispelled) mid(with) my shot(financial
contribution). |
Þa cydde man me, þæt us mara hearm to fundode, þonne us wel
licode: and þa for ic me sylf mid þam mannum þe me mid foron
into Denmearcon, þe eow mæst hearm of com: and þæt hæbbe mid
godes fultume forene forfangen, þæt eow næfre heonon forð þanon
nan unfrið to ne cymð, þa hwile þe ge me rihtlice healdað and
min lif byð. |
Tho(then) [a] man kithed(made known/couth to)
me that us more harm had found(come upon)
than us well liked(equalled): and tho(then) fore(travelled)
I, meself, mid(with) those men that mid(with) me
fore(travelled), into Denmark that [to] you most harm
came of(from): and that[harm] have [I], mid(with)
God's support, afore(previously) forefangen(forestalled)
that to you never henceforth thence none unfrith(breach of
peace) ne come the while that ye me rightly hold(behold
as king) and my life beeth. |
See also
Notes
-
^
The term Anglo-Saxon came to
refer to all things of the early English period by the 16th
century, including language, culture, and people. While this is
still the normal term for the latter two aspects, the language
began to be called Old English towards the end of the 19th
century, as a result of the increasingly strong anti-Germanic
nationalism in English society of the 1890s and early 1900s. The
language itself began to be appropriated by some English
scholars, who preferentially stressed the development of modern
English from the
Anglo-Saxon period to
Middle English and through to the present day. However many
authors still use the term Anglo-Saxon to refer to the language.
Crystal, David (2003). The
Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. Cambridge
University Press.
ISBN 0-521-53033-4.
-
^
Stumpf,
John (1970). An Outline of English Literature; Anglo-Saxon
and Middle English Literature. London: Forum House
Publishing Company. p. 7. "We do not know what languages the
Jutes, Angles, and Saxons spoke, nor even whether they were
sufficiently similar to make them mutually intelligible, but it
is reasonable to assume that by the end of the sixth century
there must have been a language that could be understood by all
and this we call Primitive Old English."
-
^
Barber,
Charles (2009). The English Language: A Historical
Introduction. Cambridge University Press. p. 137.
ISBN 978-0-521-67001-2.
-
^
Scott Shay (30 January 2008).
The history of English: a linguistic introduction.
Wardja Press. p. 86.
ISBN 978-0-615-16817-3.
Retrieved 29 January 2012.
-
^
"Rotary-munich.de" (PDF).
Retrieved 20 June 2011.
-
^
Shore, Thomas William (1906),
Origin of the Anglo-Saxon Race – A Study of the Settlement of
England and the Tribal Origin of the Old English People
(1nd ed.), London, pp. 3, 393
-
^
Origin of the Anglo-Saxon race : a study of the settlement of
England and the tribal origin of the Old English people; Author:
William Thomas Shore; Editors TW and LE Shore; Publisher: Elliot
Stock; published 1906 p. 3
-
^
Campbell, Alistair (1959). Old English Grammar.
Oxford:
Oxford University Press. p. 4.
ISBN 0-19-811943-7.
-
^
Moore, Samuel, and Knott, Thomas A.
The Elements of Old English. 1919. Ed. James R. Hulbert.
10th ed. Ann Arbor, Michigan: George Wahr Publishing Co., 1958.
-
^
The Somersetshire dialect: its pronunciation, 2 papers (1861)
Thomas Spencer Baynes, first published 1855 & 1856
-
^
It is uncertain whether the
diphthongs spelt ie/īe were pronounced
[i(ː)y] or
[i(ː)e]. The fact that this diphthong was merged with
/y(ː)/ in many dialects suggests the former.
-
^
Crystal, David (1987). The
Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge University
Press. p. 203.
ISBN 0-521-26438-3.
-
^
See also
Pronunciation of English th.
-
^
The spelling ⟨qu⟩ is much more
common in later Middle English.
-
^
Lit. a participle: "guilting" or
"[a person who is] sinning"; cf. Latin cognate -ant/-ent.
Bibliography
Sources
- Whitelock, Dorothy (ed.) (1955) English Historical
Documents; vol. I: c. 500–1042. London: Eyre & Spottiswoode
General
- Baker, Peter S. (2003).
Introduction to Old English.
Blackwell Publishing.
ISBN 0-631-23454-3.
- Baugh, Albert C; & Cable, Thomas. (1993). A History of
the English Language (4th ed.). London: Routledge.
- Earle, John (2005). A Book
for the Beginner in Anglo-Saxon.
Bristol, PA: Evolution Publishing.
ISBN 1-889758-69-8.
(Reissue of one of 4 eds. 1877–1902)
- Hogg, Richard M. (ed.). (1992). The Cambridge History of
the English Language: (Vol 1): the Beginnings to 1066.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Hogg, Richard; & Denison, David (eds.) (2006) A History
of the English Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
-
Jespersen, Otto (1909–1949) A Modern English Grammar on
Historical Principles. 7 vols. Heidelberg: C. Winter &
Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard
- Lass, Roger (1987) The Shape of English: structure and
history. London: J. M. Dent & Sons
- Lass, Roger (1994). Old
English: A historical linguistic companion.
Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 0-521-43087-9.
- Millward, Celia (1996). A
Biography of the English Language.
Harcourt Brace.
ISBN 0-15-501645-8.
- Mitchell, Bruce, and Robinson,
Fred C. (2001). A Guide to Old English (6th ed.).
Oxford: Blackwell.
ISBN 0-631-22636-2.
- Quirk, Randolph; & Wrenn, C. L. (1957). An Old English
Grammar (2nd ed.) London: Methuen.
- Strang, Barbara M. H. (1970) A History of English.
London: Methuen.
External history
- Robinson, Orrin W. (1992).
Old English and Its Closest Relatives.
Stanford University Press.
ISBN 0-8047-2221-8.
- Bremmer Jr, Rolf H. (2009). An Introduction to Old
Frisian. History, Grammar, Reader, Glossary. Amsterdam and
Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
- Stenton, F. M. (1971). Anglo-Saxon England (3rd ed.).
Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Orthography/Palaeography
- Bourcier, Georges. (1978). L'orthographie de l'anglais:
Histoire et situation actuelle. Paris: Presses
Universitaires de France.
-
Campbell, A. (1959). Old English Grammar. Oxford:
Clarendon Press.
-
Elliott, Ralph W. V. (1959). Runes: An introduction.
Manchester: Manchester University Press.
- Keller, Wolfgang. (1906). Angelsächsische Paleographie,
I: Einleitung. Berlin: Mayer & Müller.
- Ker, N. R. (1957). A Catalogue of Manuscripts Containing
Anglo-Saxon. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
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Containing Anglo-Saxon; with supplement prepared by Neil Ker
originally published in Anglo-Saxon England; 5, 1957.
Oxford: Clarendon Press
ISBN 0-19-811251-3
- Page, R. I. (1973).
An Introduction to English Runes. London: Methuen.
- Scragg, Donald G. (1974). A History of English Spelling.
Manchester: Manchester University Press.
Phonology
- Anderson, John M; & Jones, Charles. (1977). Phonological
structure and the history of English. North-Holland
linguistics series (No. 33). Amsterdam: North-Holland.
- Brunner, Karl. (1965). Altenglische Grammatik (nach der
angelsächsischen Grammatik von Eduard Sievers neubearbeitet)
(3rd ed.). Tübingen: Max Niemeyer.
- Campbell, A. (1959). Old English Grammar. Oxford:
Clarendon Press.
-
Cercignani, Fausto (1983). "The Development of */k/ and
*/sk/ in Old English". Journal of English and Germanic
Philology, 82 (3): 313–323.
- Girvan, Ritchie. (1931). Angelsaksisch Handboek; E.
L. Deuschle (transl.). (Oudgermaansche Handboeken; No. 4).
Haarlem: Tjeenk Willink.
- Halle, Morris; & Keyser, Samuel J. (1971). English
Stress: its form, its growth, and its role in verse. New
York: Harper & Row.
- Hockett, Charles F. (1959).
"The stressed syllabics of Old English". Language 35
(4): 575–597.
doi:10.2307/410597.
JSTOR 410597.
- Hogg, Richard M. (1992). A Grammar of Old English, I:
Phonology. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
- Kuhn, Sherman M. (1961). "On
the Syllabic Phonemes of Old English". Language 37
(4): 522–538.
doi:10.2307/411354.
JSTOR 411354.
- Kuhn, Sherman M. (1970). "On the consonantal phonemes of Old
English". In: J. L. Rosier (ed.) Philological Essays: studies
in Old and Middle English language and literature in honour of
Herbert Dean Merritt (pp. 16–49). The Hague: Mouton.
- Lass, Roger; & Anderson, John M. (1975). Old English
Phonology. (Cambridge studies in linguistics; No. 14).
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Luick, Karl. (1914–1940). Historische Grammatik der
englischen Sprache. Stuttgart:
Bernhard Tauchnitz.
- Maling, J. (1971). "Sentence
stress in Old English". Linguistic Inquiry 2 (3):
379–400.
JSTOR 4177642.
- McCully, C. B.; Hogg, Richard
M. (1990). "An account of Old English stress". Journal of
Linguistics 26 (2): 315–339.
doi:10.1017/S0022226700014699.
- Moulton, W. G. (1972). "The Proto-Germanic non-syllabics
(consonants)". In:
F. van Coetsem & H. L. Kufner (Eds.), Toward a Grammar of
Proto-Germanic (pp. 141–173). Tübingen: Max Niemeyer.
- Sievers, Eduard (1893). Altgermanische Metrik. Halle:
Max Niemeyer.
- Wagner, Karl Heinz (1969). Generative Grammatical Studies
in the Old English language. Heidelberg: Julius Groos.
Morphology
- Brunner, Karl. (1965). Altenglische Grammatik (nach der
angelsächsischen Grammatik von Eduard Sievers neubearbeitet)
(3rd ed.). Tübingen: Max Niemeyer.
- Campbell, A. (1959). Old English grammar. Oxford:
Clarendon Press.
- Wagner, Karl Heinz. (1969). Generative grammatical
studies in the Old English language. Heidelberg: Julius
Groos.
Syntax
- Brunner, Karl. (1962). Die englische Sprache: ihre
geschichtliche Entwicklung (Vol. II). Tübingen: Max
Niemeyer.
- Kemenade, Ans van. (1982). Syntactic Case and
Morphological Case in the History of English. Dordrecht:
Foris.
- MacLaughlin, John C. (1983). Old English Syntax: a
handbook. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer.
- Mitchell, Bruce. (1985). Old English Syntax (Vols.
1–2). Oxford: Clarendon Press (no more published)
- Vol.1: Concord, the parts of speech and the sentence
- Vol.2: Subordination, independent elements, and element
order
- Mitchell, Bruce. (1990) A Critical Bibliography of Old
English Syntax to the end of 1984, including addenda and
corrigenda to "Old English Syntax" . Oxford: Blackwell
- Timofeeva, Olga. (2010) Non-finite Constructions in Old
English, with Special Reference to Syntactic Borrowing from
Latin, PhD dissertation, Mémoires de la Société
Néophilologique de Helsinki, vol. LXXX, Helsinki: Société
Néophilologique.
- Traugott, Elizabeth Closs. (1972). A History of English
Syntax: a transformational approach to the history of English
sentence structure. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
- Visser, F. Th. (1963–1973). An Historical Syntax of the
English Language (Vols. 1–3). Leiden: E. J. Brill.
Lexicons
- Bosworth-Toller
- Bosworth, J; & Toller, T. Northcote. (1898).
An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
(Based on Bosworth's 1838 dictionary, his papers & additions by
Toller)
- Toller, T. Northcote. (1921). An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary:
Supplement. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
- Campbell, A. (1972). An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary: Enlarged
addenda and corrigenda. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
- Clark Hall-Merritt
- Clark Hall, J. R; & Merritt, H. D. (1969). A Concise
Anglo-Saxon Dictionary (4th ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
- Toronto
- Cameron, Angus, et al. (ed.) (1983)
Dictionary of Old English. Toronto: Published for the
Dictionary of Old English Project, Centre for Medieval Studies,
University of Toronto by the Pontifical Institute of Medieval
Studies, 1983/1994. (Issued on microfiche and subsequently as a
CD-ROM and on the
World Wide Web.)
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