-
May
-
Giulio Andreotti
-
Samsung Galaxy S4
-
Lawfare
-
Inferno (Dan Brown novel)
-
Florence Nightingale
-
Morse code
-
UK Independence Party
-
Beppe Grillo
-
Italian neorealism
-
Street performance
-
Oxford English Dictionary
-
Financial Times
-
Margaret Thatcher
-
Old English
-
Ottavio Missoni
-
Survivalism
-
Franco Battiato
-
Alternative for Germany
-
Party
-
Tattoo removal
-
United States Constitution
-
Unmanned aerial vehicle (Drone)
-
Pilates
-
Immortality
-
3D printing
-
Conflict of interest
-
Hanna-Barbera
-
Enrico Letta
-
French cuisine
-
Justin Bieber
|
WIKIMAG n. 6 - Maggio 2013
3D printing
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Traduzione
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Additive
manufacturing or 3D printing[1]
is a process of making a
three-dimensional solid object of virtually any shape from a
digital model. 3D printing is achieved using an additive process,
where successive layers of material are laid down in different shapes.[2]
3D printing is considered distinct from traditional
machining techniques, which mostly rely on the removal of material
by methods such as cutting or drilling (subtractive processes).
A materials printer usually performs 3D printing processes using
digital technology. Since the start of the twenty-first century there
has been a large growth in the sales of these machines, and their price
has dropped substantially.[3]
The technology is used for both
prototyping and
distributed manufacturing in jewelry, footwear,
industrial design, architecture,
engineering and construction (AEC), automotive,
aerospace, dental and medical industries, education, geographic
information systems, civil engineering, and many other fields.
Terminology
The term additive manufacturing refers to technologies that
create objects through a sequential layering process. Objects that are
manufactured additively can be used anywhere throughout the product life
cycle, from pre-production (i.e.
rapid prototyping) to full-scale production (i.e.
rapid manufacturing), in addition to tooling applications and
post-production customization.
In
manufacturing, and
machining in particular, subtractive methods are typically coined as
traditional methods. The very term subtractive manufacturing is a
retronym developed in recent years to distinguish it from newer
additive manufacturing techniques. Although
fabrication has included methods that are essentially "additive" for
centuries (such as joining plates, sheets, forgings, and rolled work via
riveting, screwing, forge welding, or newer kinds of welding), it did
not include the
information technology component of model-based definition.
Machining (generating exact shapes with high precision) has typically
been subtractive, from filing and turning to milling and grinding.
General principles
Modeling
Additive manufacturing takes virtual blueprints from
computer aided design (CAD) or
animation
modeling software and "slices" them into digital cross-sections for
the machine to successively use as a guideline for printing. Depending
on the machine used, material or a binding material is deposited on the
build bed or platform until material/binder layering is complete and the
final 3D model has been "printed." It is a
WYSIWYG
process where the virtual model and the physical model are almost
identical.
A standard data
interface between CAD software and the machines is the
STL file format. An STL file approximates the shape of a part or
assembly using triangular facets. Smaller facets produce a higher
quality surface.
PLY is a scanner generated input file format, and
VRML (or WRL) files are often used as input for 3D printing
technologies that are able to print in full color.
Printing
To perform a print, the machine reads the design from an .stl file
and lays down successive layers of liquid, powder, paper or sheet
material to build the model from a series of cross sections. These
layers, which correspond to the virtual cross sections from the CAD
model, are joined together or automatically fused to create the final
shape. The primary advantage of this technique is its ability to create
almost any shape or geometric feature.
Printer resolution describes layer thickness and X-Y resolution in
dpi (dots per inch),[citation
needed] or micrometres. Typical layer thickness is
around 100
micrometres (0.1 mm), although some machines such as the Objet
Connex series and 3D Systems' ProJet series can print layers
as thin as 16 micrometres.[4]
X-Y resolution is comparable to that of laser printers. The particles
(3D dots) are around 50 to 100 micrometres (0.05–0.1 mm) in diameter.
Construction of a model with contemporary methods can take anywhere
from several hours to several days, depending on the method used and the
size and complexity of the model. Additive systems can typically reduce
this time to a few hours, although it varies widely depending on the
type of machine used and the size and number of models being produced
simultaneously.
Traditional techniques like
injection molding can be less expensive for manufacturing polymer
products in high quantities, but additive manufacturing can be faster,
more flexible and less expensive when producing relatively small
quantities of parts. 3D printers give designers and concept development
teams the ability to produce parts and concept models using a desktop
size printer.
Finishing
Though the printer-produced resolution is sufficient for many
applications, printing a slightly oversized version of the desired
object in standard resolution, and then removing material with a
higher-resolution subtractive process can achieve greater precision.
Some additive manufacturing techniques are capable of using multiple
materials in the course of constructing parts. Some are able to print in
multiple colors and color combinations simultaneously. Some also utilize
supports when building. Supports are removable or dissolvable upon
completion of the print, and are used to support overhanging features
during construction.
Additive processes
Rapid prototyping worldwide [5]
The
Audi RSQ was made with rapid prototyping industrial
KUKA robots
Several different 3D printing processes have been invented since the
late 1970s. The printers were originally large, expensive, and highly
limited in what they could produce.[6]
A number of additive processes are now available. They differ in the
way layers are deposited to create parts and in the materials that can
be used. Some methods melt or soften material to produce the layers,
e.g.
selective laser sintering (SLS) and
fused deposition modeling (FDM), while others cure liquid materials
using different sophisticated technologies, e.g.
stereolithography (SLA). With
laminated object manufacturing (LOM), thin layers are cut to shape
and joined together (e.g. paper, polymer, metal). Each method has its
own advantages and drawbacks, and some companies consequently offer a
choice between powder and polymer for the material from which the object
is built.[7]
Some companies use standard, off-the-shelf business paper as the build
material to produce a durable prototype. The main considerations in
choosing a machine are generally speed, cost of the 3D printer, cost of
the printed prototype, and cost and choice of materials and color
capabilities.[8]
Printers that work directly with metals are expensive. In some cases,
however, less expensive printers can be used to make a mould, which is
then used to make metal parts.[9]
Extrusion
deposition
Fused deposition modeling: 1 – nozzle ejecting molten
plastic, 2 – deposited material (modeled part), 3 –
controlled movable table
Fused deposition modeling (FDM) was developed by
S. Scott Crump in the late 1980s and was commercialized in 1990 by
Stratasys.[10]
With the expiration of patent on this technology there is now a large
open-source development community this type of 3-D printer (e.g.
RepRaps) and many commercial and
DIY variants, which have dropped the cost by two orders of
magnitude.
Fused deposition modeling uses a plastic filament or metal wire that
is wound on a coil and unreeled to supply material to an
extrusion nozzle, which turns the flow on and off. The nozzle heats
to melt the material and can be moved in both horizontal and vertical
directions by a numerically controlled mechanism that is directly
controlled by a
computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) software package. The model or
part is produced by extruding small beads of
thermoplastic material to form layers as the material hardens
immediately after extrusion from the nozzle.
Stepper motors or
servo motors are typically employed to move the extrusion head.
Various polymers are used, including
acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS),
polycarbonate (PC),
polylactic acid (PLA),
high density polyethylene (HDPE), PC/ABS, and
polyphenylsulfone (PPSU). In general the polymer is in the form of a
filament, which can be fabricated from virgin
resins or from post-consumer waste by
recyclebots.
FDM has some restrictions on the shapes that may be fabricated. For
example, FDM usually cannot produce stalactite-like structures, since
they would be unsupported during the build. These have to be avoided or
a thin support may be designed into the structure which can be broken
away during finishing processes.
Granular
materials binding
The
CandyFab granular printing system uses heated air and
granulated sugar to produce food-grade art objects.
Another 3D printing approach is the selective fusing of materials in
a granular bed. The technique fuses parts of the layer, and then moves
the working area downwards, adding another layer of granules and
repeating the process until the piece has built up. This process uses
the unfused media to support overhangs and thin walls in the part being
produced, which reduces the need for temporary auxiliary supports for
the piece. A laser is typically used to
sinter the media into a solid. Examples include
selective laser sintering (SLS), with both metals and polymers (e.g.
PA, PA-GF, Rigid GF, PEEK, PS,
Alumide,
Carbonmide, elastomers), and
direct metal laser sintering (DMLS).
Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) was developed and patented by Dr.
Carl Deckard and Dr. Joseph Beaman at the
University of Texas at Austin in the mid-1980s, under sponsorship of
DARPA.[11]
A similar process was patented without being commercialized by R. F.
Housholder in 1979.[12]
Electron beam melting (EBM) is a similar type of additive
manufacturing technology for metal parts (e.g.
titanium alloys). EBM manufactures parts by melting metal powder
layer by layer with an electron beam in a high vacuum. Unlike metal
sintering techniques that operate below melting point, EBM parts are
fully dense, void-free, and very strong.[13][14]
Another method consists of an
inkjet 3D printing system. The printer creates the model one layer
at a time by spreading a layer of powder (plaster,
or resins)
and printing a binder in the cross-section of the part using an
inkjet-like process. This is repeated until every layer has been
printed. This technology allows the printing of full color prototypes,
overhangs, and elastomer parts. The strength of bonded powder prints can
be enhanced with wax or
thermoset polymer impregnation.
Lamination
In some printers, paper can be used as the build material, resulting
in a lower cost to print. During the 1990s some companies marketed
printers that cut cross sections out of special adhesive coated paper
using a carbon dioxide laser, and then laminated them together.
In 2005,
Mcor Technologies Ltd developed a different process using ordinary
sheets of office paper, a Tungsten carbide blade to cut the shape, and
selective deposition of adhesive and pressure to bond the prototype.[15]
There are also a number of companies selling printers that print
laminated objects using thin plastic and metal sheets.
Photopolymerization
Stereolithography apparatus
Stereolithography was patented in 1987 by
Chuck Hull. Photopolymerization is primarily used in
stereolithography (STL) to produce a solid part from a liquid.
In
digital light processing (DLP), a vat of liquid polymer is exposed
to light from a DLP projector under
safelight conditions. The exposed liquid polymer hardens. The build
plate then moves down in small increments and the liquid polymer is
again exposed to light. The process repeats until the model has been
built. The liquid polymer is then drained from the vat, leaving the
solid model. The EnvisionTec Ultra[16]
is an example of a DLP rapid prototyping system.
Inkjet printer systems like the Objet PolyJet system spray
photopolymer materials onto a build tray in ultra-thin layers (between
16 and 30 microns) until the part is completed. Each photopolymer layer
is
cured with UV light after it is jetted, producing fully cured models
that can be handled and used immediately, without post-curing. The
gel-like support material, which is designed to support complicated
geometries, is removed by hand and water jetting. It is also suitable
for elastomers.
Ultra-small features can be made with the 3D microfabrication
technique used in
multiphoton photopolymerization. This approach traces the desired 3D
object in a block of gel using a focused laser. Due to the nonlinear
nature of photoexcitation, the gel is cured to a solid only in the
places where the laser was focused and the remaining gel is then washed
away. Feature sizes of under 100 nm are easily produced, as well as
complex structures with moving and interlocked parts.[17]
Yet another approach uses a synthetic resin that is solidified using
LEDs.[18]
Printers
Printers
for domestic use
RepRap version 2.0 (Mendel)
Airwolf 3D AW3D v.4 (Prusa)
There are several projects and companies making efforts to develop
affordable 3D printers for home desktop use. Much of this work has been
driven by and targeted at
DIY/enthusiast/early
adopter communities, with additional ties to the academic and
hacker communities.[19]
RepRap is one of the longest running projects in the desktop
category. The RepRap project aims to produce a
free and open source software (FOSS) 3D printer, whose full
specifications are released under the
GNU General Public License, and which is capable of replicating
itself by printing many of its own (plastic) parts to create more
machines.[20]
Research is under way to enable the device to print
circuit boards, as well as metal parts.
Because of the FOSS aims of RepRap, many related projects have used
their design for inspiration, creating an ecosystem of related or
derivative 3D printers, most of which are also open source designs. The
availability of these open source designs means that variants of 3D
printers are easy to invent. The quality and complexity of printer
designs, however, as well as the quality of kit or finished products,
varies greatly from project to project. This rapid development of open
source 3D printers is gaining interest in many spheres as it enables
hyper-customization and the use of
public domain designs to fabricate
open source appropriate technology through conduits such as
Thingiverse and Cubify. This technology can also assist initiatives
in
sustainable development since technologies are easily and
economically made from resources available to local communities.[21]
The cost of 3-D printers has decreased dramatically since about 2010,
with machines that used to cost $20,000 costing less than $1,000.[22]
For instance, as of 2013, several companies and individuals are selling
parts to build various RepRap designs, with prices starting at about
€400 / US$500.[23]
The price of printer kits vary from US$400 for the Printrbot Jr.
(derived from the previous RepRap models), to over US$2000 for the
Fab@Home 2.0 two-syringe system.[23]
The Shark 3D printer comes fully assembled for less than US$2000. The
open source Fab@Home project[24]
has developed printers for general use with anything that can be
squirted through a nozzle, from chocolate to silicone sealant and
chemical reactants. Printers following the project's designs have been
available from suppliers in kits or in pre-assembled form since 2012 at
prices in the US$2000 range.[23]
Printers for commercial and domestic use
The development and hyper-customization of the RepRap-based 3D
printers has produced a new category of printers suitable for both
domestic and commercial use. The least expensive assembled machine
available is the Solidoodle 2, while the RepRapPro's Huxley DIY kit is
reputedly[weasel words]
one of the more reliable of the lower-priced machines, at around US$680.
There are other RepRap-based high-end kits and fully assembled machines
that have been enhanced to print at high speed and high definition.
Depending on the application, the print resolution and speed of
manufacturing lies somewhere between a personal printer and an
industrial printer. A list of printers with pricing and other
information is maintained.[23]
Most recently
delta robots have been utilized for 3D printing to increase
fabrication speed further.[25]
Applications
Three-dimensional printing makes it as cheap to create single
items as it is to produce thousands and thus undermines
economies of scale. It may have as profound an impact on the
world as the coming of the factory did....Just as nobody could have
predicted the impact of the
steam engine in 1750—or the
printing press in 1450, or the
transistor in 1950—it is impossible to foresee the long-term
impact of 3D printing. But the technology is coming, and it is
likely to disrupt every field it touches.
—
The Economist, in a February 10, 2011 leader[26]
An example of 3D printed limited edition
jewellery. This necklace is made of glassfiber-filled
dyed nylon. It has rotating linkages that were produced in
the same manufacturing step as the other parts.
Additive manufacturing's earliest applications have been on the
toolroom end of the manufacturing spectrum. For example,
rapid prototyping was one of the earliest additive variants, and its
mission was to reduce the
lead
time and cost of developing prototypes of new parts and devices,
which was earlier only done with subtractive toolroom methods (typically
slowly and expensively).[27]
With technological advances in additive manufacturing, however, and the
dissemination of those advances into the business world, additive
methods are moving ever further into the production end of manufacturing
in creative and sometimes unexpected ways.[27]
Parts that were formerly the sole province of subtractive methods can
now in some cases be made more profitably via additive ones.
Standard applications include design visualization, prototyping/CAD,
metal casting, architecture, education, geospatial, healthcare, and
entertainment/retail.
Industrial uses
Rapid prototyping
Full color miniature face models produced on a Spectrum Z510
3D Printer
Industrial 3D printers have existed since the early 1980s and have
been used extensively for rapid prototyping and research purposes. These
are generally larger machines that use proprietary powdered metals,
casting media (e.g. sand), plastics, paper or cartridges, and are used
for
rapid prototyping by universities and commercial companies.
Industrial 3D printers are made by companies including
Mcor Technologies Ltd,
3D
Systems,
Objet Geometries, and
Stratasys.
Rapid
manufacturing
Advances in RP technology have introduced materials that are
appropriate for final manufacture, which has in turn introduced the
possibility of directly manufacturing finished components. One advantage
of 3D printing for rapid manufacturing lies in the relatively
inexpensive production of small numbers of parts.
Rapid manufacturing is a new method of manufacturing and many of its
processes remain unproven. 3D printing is now entering the field of
rapid manufacturing and was identified as a "next level" technology by
many experts in a 2009 report.[28]
One of the most promising processes looks to be the adaptation of laser
sintering (LS), one of the better-established rapid prototyping methods.
As of 2006, however, these techniques were still very much in their
infancy, with many obstacles to be overcome before RM could be
considered a realistic manufacturing method.[29]
Mass customization
Companies have created services where consumers can customize objects
using simplified web based customization software, and order the
resulting items as 3D printed unique objects.[30][31]
This now allows consumers to create custom cases for their mobile
phones.[32]
Nokia has released the 3D designs for its case so that owners can
customize their own case and have it 3D printed.[33]
Mass production
|
This
section requires
expansion. (November 2012) |
The current slow print speed of 3D printers limits their use for
mass production. To reduce this overhead, several fused filament
machines now offer multiple extruder heads. These can be used to print
in multiple colors, with different polymers, or to make multiple prints
simultaneously. This increases their overall print speed during multiple
instance production, while requiring less capital cost than duplicate
machines since they can share a single controller. Distinct from the use
of multiple machines, multi-material machines are restricted to making
identical copies of the same part, but can offer multi-color and
multi-material features when needed. The print speed increases
proportionately to the number of heads. Furthermore, the energy cost is
reduced due to the fact that they share the same heated print volume.
Together, these two features reduce overhead costs, yet the main cost
continues to be the raw filament, which is unchanged.
Many printers now offer twin print heads. However, these are used to
manufacture single (sets of) parts in multiple colors/materials.
Few studies have yet been done in this field to see if conventional
subtractive methods are comparable to additive methods.
Domestic
and hobbyist uses
As of 2012, domestic 3D printing has mainly captivated hobbyists and
enthusiasts and has not quite gained recognition for practical household
applications. A working clock has been made[34]
and gears
have been printed for home woodworking machines[35]
among other purposes.[36]
3D printing is also used for ornamental objects. One printer (the
Fab@Home) includes chocolate in the materials that can be printed. Web
sites associated with home 3D printing tend to include backscratchers,
coathooks, etc. among their offered prints. The Fab@Home gallery
includes many objects that lack practical application, but includes
examples of practical possibilities, including a
flashlight/torch using
conductive ink for the
electrical circuit, a battery-powered
motor, an
iPod case, a silicone watch band, and somewhat miscellaneously, a
translucent cylinder completely enclosing a brown box, a construct
difficult to fabricate any other way.[37]
The open source Fab@Home project[24]
has developed printers for general use. They have been used in research
environments to produce chemical compounds with 3D printing technology,
including new ones, initially without immediate application as proof of
principle.[38]
The printer can print with anything that can be dispensed from a syringe
as liquid or paste. The developers of the chemical application envisage
that this technology could be used for both in industrial and domestic
use. Including, for example, enabling users in remote locations to be
able to produce their own medicine or household chemicals.[39][40]
3D printing
services
Some companies offer on-line 3D printing services open to both
consumers and industries.[41]
Such services require people to upload their 3D designs to the company
website. Designs are then 3D printed using industrial 3D printers and
either shipped to the customer or in some cases, the consumer can pick
the object up at the store.[42]
Some examples of 3D printing services companies are
Staples Inc.,[43]
Shapeways,[44]
and Freedom of Creation.[45]
Research into new applications
Future applications for 3D printing might include creating
open-source scientific equipment[46]
or other science-based applications like reconstructing fossils in
paleontology, replicating ancient and priceless artifacts in
archaeology, reconstructing bones and body parts in forensic
pathology, and reconstructing heavily damaged evidence acquired from
crime scene investigations. The technology is even being explored for
building construction.
In 2005, academic journals had begun to report on the possible
artistic applications of 3D printing technology.[47]
By 2007 the mass media followed with an article in the Wall Street
Journal[48]
and Time Magazine, listing a 3D printed design among their 100 most
influential designs of the year.[49]
During the 2011 London Design Festival, an installation, curated by
Murray Moss and focused on 3D Printing, was held in the Victoria and
Albert Museum (the V&A). The installation was called Industrial
Revolution 2.0: How the Material World will Newly Materialise.[50]
As of 2012, 3D printing technology has been studied by biotechnology
firms and academia for possible use in tissue engineering applications
in which organs and body parts are built using inkjet techniques. In
this process, layers of living cells are deposited onto a gel medium or
sugar matrix and slowly built up to form three-dimensional structures
including vascular systems.[51]
Several terms have been used to refer to this field of research: organ
printing, bio-printing, body part printing,[52]
and computer-aided
tissue engineering, among others.[53]
3D printing can produce a personalized
hip replacement in one pass, with the
ball permanently inside the socket and is available in printing
resolutions that don't require polishing.[citation
needed]
A
proof-of-principle project at the
University of Glasgow, UK, in 2012 showed that it is possible to use
3D printing techniques to create
chemical compounds, including new ones. They first concept printed
chemical
reaction vessels, then use the printer to squirt
reactants into them as "chemical inks" which would then react.[38]
They have produced new compounds to verify the validity of the process,
but have not pursued anything with a particular application.[38]
They used the Fab@Home open source printer, at a reported cost of
US$2,000. Cornell Creative Machines Lab has confirmed that it is
possible to produce customized food with 3D Hydrocolloid Printing.[54]
The use of
3D
scanning technologies allows the replication of real objects without
the use of
moulding techniques that in many cases can be more expensive, more
difficult, or too invasive to be performed, particularly for precious or
delicate cultural heritage artifacts[55]
where direct contact with the molding substances could harm the original
object's surface. Objects as ubiquitous as
smartphones can be used as 3D scanners:
Sculpteo unveiled a
mobile app at the 2012 Consumer Electronics Show that allows a
3D file to be generated directly via smartphone.[56]
As an example of possible future applications, an
open source group emerged in the US in 2012 that was attempting to
design
a firearm
that was downloadable and printable from the Internet.[57]
The weapon would still require bullets produced by traditional methods.
Calling itself
Defense Distributed, the group wants to facilitate "a working
plastic gun that could be downloaded and reproduced by anybody with a 3D
printer".[58]
Soon after Defense Distributed succeeded in designing the first working
blueprint to produce a plastic gun with a 3D printer in May 2013, the
United States State Department demanded that they remove the
instructions from their website[59].
An additional use being developed is
building printing, or using 3d printing to build buildings. This
could allow faster construction for lower costs, and has been
investigated for construction of off-Earth habitats.[60][61]
Intellectual
property
Three different sorts of
intellectual property are commonly defined,
patent,
copyright and
trademark. Patents are to do with protecting how something works,
and lasts up to about 25 years, depending on the jurisdiction.
Copyrights protect artistic works, and generally last the artists life
plus 70 years.[62]
Usually, purely functional items, and plans and documents for these
items, older than 25 years are usually no longer patented and can be
freely copied, scanned and 3D printed.[62]
However, if an item has artistic features, those artistic features
are generally considered copyrighted.[62][63]
When a feature has both artistic and functional merits, when the
question has appeared in US court, the courts have often held the
feature is not copyrightable unless it can be separated from the
functional aspects of the item.[62]
Effects of 3D
printing
Predive manufacturing, starting with today's infancy period, require
manufacturing firms to be flexible,
ever-improving users of all available technologies in order to
remain competitive. Advocates of additive manufacturing also predict
that this arc of technological development will counter
globalisation, as end users will do much of their own manufacturing
rather than engage in trade to buy products from other people and
corporations.[6]
The real integration of the newer additive technologies into commercial
production, however, is more a matter of complementing traditional
subtractive methods rather than displacing them entirely.[64]
See also
References
-
^
The engineer: The rise of additive manufacturing
-
^
"3D Printer Technology – Animation of layering". Create It
Real. Retrieved 2012-01-31.
-
^
Sherman, Lilli Manolis.
"3D Printers Lead Growth of Rapid Prototyping (Plastics
Technology, August 2004)".
Retrieved 2012-01-31.
-
^
"Objet Connex 3D Printers". Objet Printer Solutions.
Retrieved 2012-01-31.
-
^ D. T. Pham, S. S.
Dimov, Rapid manufacturing, Springer-Verlag, 2001,
ISBN 1-85233-360-X, page 6
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a
b
Jane
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"Exploring the 3D printing opportunity".
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^
Sherman, Lilli Manolis (November 15,
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^
Wohlers, Terry.
"Factors to Consider When Choosing a 3D Printer
(WohlersAssociates.com, Nov/Dec 2005)".
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^
3ders.org: Casting aluminum parts directly from 3D printed PLA
parts
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^
Chee Kai Chua; Kah Fai Leong, Chu
Sing Lim (2003).
Rapid Prototyping. World Scientific. p. 124.
-
^ Deckard, C.,
"Method and apparatus for producing parts by selective
sintering",
U.S. Patent 4,863,538, filed October 17, 1986, published
September 5, 1989.
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^ Housholder, R.,
"Molding Process",
U.S. Patent 4,247,508, filed December 3, 1979, published
January 27, 1981.
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^
Hiemenz, Joe.
"Rapid prototypes move to metal components (EE Times, 3/9/2007)".
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^
"Rapid Manufacturing by Electron Beam Melting". SMU.edu.
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^
Article in Rapid Today,
"3D Printer Uses Standard Paper", "Rapid Today", May, 2008
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^
"EnvisionTec Ultra". EnvisionTec.
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^
Johnson, R. Colin.
"Cheaper avenue to 65 nm? (EE Times, 3/30/2007)".
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^
"The World's Smallest 3D Printer".
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^
Kalish, Jon.
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28, 2010)". Retrieved
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^
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Vincent; Earls, Alan R. (February 2011).
"Origins: A 3D Vision Spawns Stratasys, Inc. Today's Machining
World's new feature "Origins" tells us the stories of how
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Mark [Editor in Chief] (2011-01-17).
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subtractive and additive processes can be combined to develop
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methods ['Mark: My Word' column—Editor's Commentary]". Modern
Machine Shop (Cincinnati, Ohio, USA: Gardner Publications Inc)
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Further reading
- Easton,
Thomas A. (November 2008). "The 3D Trainwreck: How 3D Printing Will
Shake Up Manufacturing".
Analog 128 (11): 50–63.
- Wright, Paul K. (2001). 21st Century Manufacturing. New
Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc.
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