-
June
-
Renewable energy
-
Infotainment
-
Giro d'Italia
-
The Origin of Species
-
Eurovision Song Contest
-
Ignaz Semmelweis
-
Chocolate
-
Bouncer
-
Dante Alighieri
-
Anti-globalization movement
-
E-learning
-
Mad magazine
-
Dubai
-
Common English usage misconceptions
-
Logistics
-
Blue Is the Warmest Colour
-
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)
-
Look-alike
-
Seigniorage
-
Reality television
-
Rihanna
-
Potential superpowers
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Wicca
-
Musical instrument
-
Spelling bee
-
Stefano Rodotà
-
English Heritage
-
Singing
-
Femicide
|
WIKIMAG n. 7 - Giugno 2013
Common English usage
misconceptions
Text is available under the
Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional
terms may apply. See
Terms of
Use for details.
Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the
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Inc., a non-profit organization.
Traduzione
interattiva on/off
- Togli il segno di spunta per disattivarla
This
list comprises widespread modern beliefs about
English
language
usage that are documented by a reliable source to be inaccurate or
untrue.
Perceived usage and grammar violations elicit visceral reactions in
many people. For example, respondents to a 1986
BBC poll were
asked to submit "the three points of grammatical usage they most
disliked". Participants stated that their noted points " 'made their
blood boil', 'gave a pain to their ear', 'made them shudder', and
'appalled' them".[1]
But not all commonly held
usage
violations are errors; many are held to be correct by sources that are
just as reliable.[a]
With no authoritative
language academy, English is not a
prescriptive language. Therefore, guidance on English language usage
can come from many sources. This can create problems as described by
Reginald Close:
Teachers and textbook writers often invent rules which
their students and readers repeat and perpetuate. These rules are
usually statements about English usage which the authors imagine to
be, as a rule, true. But statements of this kind are
extremely difficult to formulate both simply and accurately. They
are rarely altogether true; often only partially true; sometimes
contradicted by usage itself. Sometimes the contrary to them is also
true.[2]
Grammar
Misconception: A sentence must not end in a
preposition.[3][4][5]
Mignon Fogarty ("Grammar Girl") says, "nearly all grammarians agree
that it's fine to end sentences with prepositions, at least in some
cases."[6]
Fowler's Modern English Usage says that "One of the most
persistent myths about prepositions in English is that they properly
belong before the word or words they govern and should not be placed at
the end of a clause or sentence."[7]
Preposition stranding was in use long before any English speakers
considered it to be incorrect. This idea probably began in the 17th
century, owing to an essay by the poet
John Dryden, and it is still taught in schools today.[3]
But, "every major grammarian for more than a century has tried to
debunk" this idea; "it's perfectly natural to put a preposition at the
end of a sentence, and it has been since Anglo-Saxon times."[8]
"Great literature from Chaucer to Milton to Shakespeare to the King
James version of the Bible was full of so called terminal prepositions."[4]
Winston Churchill is apocryphally attributed with saying, "This is
the sort of nonsense up with which I will not put,"[9][4][b]
illustrating the awkwardness that could result from a rule prohibiting
sentence-ending prepositions.
Misconception:
Infinitives must not be
split. "There is no such rule" against splitting an infinitive,
according to The Oxford Guide to Plain English,[10]
and it's "never been wrong to 'split' an infinitive".[11]
In some cases it might be preferable to split an infinitive.[10][12]
But, Phillip Howard states that this is "another great Shibboleth of
English syntax", and the "grammatical 'rule' that most people retain
from their schooldays is the one about not splitting infinitives".[13]
According to the
University of Chicago Writing Program, "Professional linguists have
been snickering at it for decades, yet children are still taught this
false 'rule.' "[14]
In his grammar book A Plea for the Queen's English (1864),
Henry Alford claimed that "to" was part of the infinitive and that
the parts were inseparable.[15]
This was in line with a movement by grammarians in the 19th century to
transfer Latin rules to the English language (in Latin, infinitives are
unsplittable words, e.g., "amare, cantare, audire").[10]
Misconception: The words "and" and "but" must not begin a
sentence. Those who
impose this rule for themselves are following a modern English
"rule" that was not used historically. Jeremy Butterfield described this
perceived prohibition as one of "the folk commandments of English
usage".[16]
The Chicago Manual of Style says,
There is a widespread belief—one with no historical or
grammatical foundation—that it is an error to begin a sentence with
a conjunction such as 'and', 'but', or 'so'. In fact, a substantial
percentage (often as many as 10 percent) of the sentences in
first-rate writing begin with conjunctions. It has been so for
centuries, and even the most conservative grammarians have followed
this practice.[17][c]
Regarding the word "and",
Fowler's Modern English Usage states, "There is a persistent
belief that it is improper to begin a sentence with And, but this
prohibition has been cheerfully ignored by standard authors from
Anglo-Saxon times onwards."[18]
Garner's Modern American Usage adds, "It is rank superstition
that this coordinating conjuction cannot properly begin a sentence."[19]
The word "but" suffers from similar misconceptions.
Garner tells us that, "It is a gross canard that beginning a
sentence with but is stylistically slipshod. In fact, doing so is
highly desirable in any number of contexts, as many stylebooks have said
(many correctly pointing out that but is more effective than
however at the beginning of a sentence)".[20]
Fowler's echoes this sentiment, saying "The widespread public belief
that But should not be used at the beginning of a sentence seems
to be unshakeable. Yet it has no foundation."[21]
Misconception: The
passive voice is incorrect. An English myth is that the passive
voice is always incorrect[22]
and some "writing tutors" believe that the passive voice is to be
avoided in all cases.[23]
However, "There are legitimate uses for the passive voice," says Paul
Brians.[24]
Mignon Fogarty also points out that "passive sentences aren't
incorrect",[25]
and "If you don't know who is responsible for an action, passive voice
can be the best choice."[5][d]
When the active and passive voices can both be used without much
awkwardness, there are
differing opinions about which one should be preferred.
Bryan A. Garner adds a twist to the misconception about passive
voice with the statement, "Many writers talk about passive voice without
knowing exactly what it is. In fact, many think that any BE-VERB signals
passive voice."[26]
Misconception: Using
double negatives is always bad English. This is included by
Patricia O'Conner in a list of "bogus or worn out rules".[27][28]
She advises readers to avoid certain uses (such as "I didn't do
nothing") but not to completely remove the double negative from our
English toolboxes when constructing prose.[29]
Acceptable examples given are "It's not inconceivable. She's
not unappealing."[30]
Whether or not the double negative is being used as a positive
constitutes a major difference between the acceptable and unacceptable
examples. Many prescriptive English speakers consider this the defining
criterion for whether a double negative is acceptable.[31]
However, it was only in 1762 that this trend of making English agree
with formal logic was introduced so some linguists still advise against
using double negatives altogether.[31]
Paul Brians, who affirms that "It is not true, as some assert, that
double negatives are always wrong," provides the following as a humorous
example:
One of the funniest uses of the literary double negative is
Douglas Adams' description of a machine dispensing "a substance
almost, but not quite, entirely unlike tea."[32]
Typography
Misconception: Two spaces must follow each sentence.
Placing two word
spaces between sentences is a
typewriter convention that has carried over into the age of digital
media. Most
style guides recommend only a
single space between sentences.[33]
Professionally published books, magazines, and newspapers also use a
single space between sentences, but even this is widely overlooked.[34]
Misconception: Every
paragraph must be indented. Professionally printed material does
not always have an indented first paragraph.
Robert Bringhurst states that we should "Set opening paragraphs
flush left"[35]
and explains as follows: "The function of a paragraph is to mark a
pause, setting the paragraph apart from what precedes it. If a paragraph
is preceded by a title or subhead, the indent is superfluous and can
therefore be omitted."[35]
Usage
Misconception:
Paragraphs must comprise at least three sentences.[e]
This is an English myth.[36]
Richard Nordquist states that "no rule exists regarding the number
of sentences that make up a paragraph," noting that professional writers
use "paragraphs as short as a single word".[37]
According to the Oxford Guide to Plain English,
If you can say what you want to say in a single sentence that
lacks a direct connection with any other sentence, just stop there
and go on to a new paragraph. There's no rule against it. A
paragraph can be a single sentence, whether long, short, or
middling.[36]
The
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill's Writing Center states
on its website, "Many students define paragraphs in terms of length: a
paragraph is a group of at least five sentences, a paragraph is half a
page long, etc." The website explains, "Length and appearance do not
determine whether a section in a paper is a paragraph. For instance, in
some styles of writing, particularly journalistic styles, a paragraph
can be just one sentence long."[38]
According to The History of the English Paragraph (1894), by
Edwin Herbert Lewis, many of history's greatest writers used one- and
two-sentence paragraphs in their works, especially but not exclusively
in dialog:
Defoe,
Bunyan,
Laurence Sterne,
Spenser,
Scott,
Dickens,
Fielding,
Hobbes,
Bacon,
George Eliot,
Johnson,
Locke,
Lamb,
Swift,
De Quincey,
Addison,
Ruskin,
Dryden,
Sidney, and
Milton. (Cited with percentages at
http://www.grammarphobia.com/blog/2011/07/paragraph.html . The
original thesis is available online at
http://www.ebooksread.com/authors-eng/edwin-herbert-lewis/the-history-of-the-english-paragraph-867.shtml
. Various print copies have been scanned and made available, e.g.,
through
Amazon.com.)
Misconception:
Contractions are not appropriate in proper English. Bill Walsh
lists this as one of the "big myths of English usage"[39]
and Patricia O'Connor and Stewart Kellerman write, "A lot of people ...
still seem to think that contractions are not quite ... quite. If
you do too, you're quite wrong." Writers such as
Shakespeare,
Samuel Johnson, and others since Anglo-Saxon days have been
"shrinking English". Some of the opinion makers in the 17th and 18th
century eschewed contractions, but beginning in the 1920s, usage guides
have allowed them. "Most writing handbooks now recommend contractions",
but "there are still lots of traditionalists out there who haven't
gotten the word",[40]
contributing to the modern myth that contractions are forbidden usage. A
number of writing guides still recommend not to use contractions in
academic and formal writing.[41][42][43]
Misconception: "I feel badly" is the correct negative
response to "How do you feel?" The expression "I feel badly" is
often used in English, but it is not usually possible as a meaningful
reply to this question because it means "I feel guilty"[44][45]
and implies or often requires an addition beginning with "about...".[46]
According to Paul Brians in Common Errors in English Usage, " 'I
feel bad' is standard English", and " 'I feel badly' is an incorrect
hyper-correction by people who think they know better than the masses."[47]
Misconception: The phrase "begs the question" should not be
used to mean "raises the question." "Begging
the question" is a logical fallacy, but "most people now suppose the
phrase implies something quite different: that the argument demands that
a question about it be asked—raises the question", says Paul
Brians.[48]
However, Merriam-Webster dictionaries allow both meanings.[49]
Semantics
"Xmas" used on a Christmas postcard (1910).
Misconception: "Healthy" is not an appropriate adjective
for describing food. According to Paul Brians, "Many argue 'people
are healthy, but vegetables are healthful ' "; however, "phrases
like 'part of a healthy breakfast' have become so widespread that they
are rarely perceived as erroneous except by the hyper-correct.[50]
Misconception: Non-standard, slang, or colloquial words are
not real words. For instance, despite appearing as a word in
numerous dictionaries,[51]
"irregardless"
is dismissed as "not a word" in some style guides.[52]
All words in English originated by becoming commonly used during a
certain time period, thus there are many informal words currently
regarded as "incorrect" in formal speech or writing. But the idea that
they are somehow not words is a misconception.[53][54][55]
Examples of words that are sometimes alleged to be "not a word" include
"conversate", "funnest", "impactful", "mentee" and "thusly".[56][57][58]
All of these appear in numerous dictionaries as English words.[59][60][61][62][63]
Misconception: "Inflammable" means something that cannot
burn. " 'Flammable' and 'inflammable' both mean 'easy to catch on
fire', but so many people misunderstand the latter term that it's better
to stick with 'flammable' in safety warnings", says Paul Brians.[64]
Misconception: "Nauseous" cannot mean suffering from
nausea. Some writers on language, such as Theodore Bernstein and
Bill Bryson, have advanced the idea that "nauseous" means only causing
nausea (synonymous with "nauseating") not suffering from it (which would
be "nauseated"), and therefore it is incorrect to say "I am nauseous"
(unless you mean to say "I inspire nausea in others"). This prescription
is contradicted by vast evidence from English usage, and Merriam-Webster
finds no source for the rule prior to a published letter by a physician,
Deborah Leary, in 1949.[65]
Misconception: "Xmas"
is a secular plan to "take the Christ out of Christmas." "The usual
suggestion is that 'Xmas' is ... an attempt by the ungodly to x-out
Jesus and banish religion from the holiday."[66]
However, X stands for the Greek letter
Chi, the starting letter of Χριστός, or "Christ" in Greek.[67]
(Also see the related
Chi Rho
symbol.) The use of the word "Xmas" can be traced to the year 1021 when
"monks in Great Britain...used the X while transcribing classical
manuscripts into Old English" in place of "Christ".[66]
The Oxford English Dictionary's "first recorded use of 'Xmas' for
'Christmas' dates back to 1551."[68]
Paul Brians adds that, "so few people know this that it is probably
better not to use this popular abbreviation in religious contexts."[69]
Notes
- a.^
For example, among the top ten usage "errors" submitted to the
BBC was the supposed prohibition against using double negatives.
- b.^
The Churchill Centre describes a similar version as "An
invented phrase put in Churchill's mouth".[70]
- c.^
Chicago elaborates by noting Charles Allen Lloyd’s
observations on this phenomenon: "Next to the groundless notion
that it is incorrect to end an English sentence with a
preposition, perhaps the most wide-spread of the many false
beliefs about the use of our language is the equally groundless
notion that it is incorrect to begin one with "but" or "and." As
in the case of the superstition about the prepositional ending,
no textbook supports it, but apparently about half of our
teachers of English go out of their way to handicap their pupils
by inculcating it. One cannot help wondering whether those who
teach such a monstrous doctrine ever read any English
themselves."[71]
- d.^
These authors are quick to point out, however, that the passive
voice is not necessarily better—it's simply a myth that
the passive voice is wrong. For example, Brians states
that, "it's true that you can make your prose more lively and
readable by using the active voice much more often,"[24]
and Fogarty points out that "passive sentences aren't incorrect;
it’s just that they often aren't the best way to phrase your
thoughts".[72]
- e.^
Or any other arbitrary number.
See also
References
-
^ Jenny Cheshire,
"Myth 14: Double Negatives are Illogical" in
Bauer and Trudgill 1998. pp. 113–114.
-
^
Close 1964. n.p. (Front matter.) In a footnote to this text,
Close also points to English as a Foreign Language by R.
A. Close (George Allen and Unwin, London, 1962).
-
^
a
b
Cutts 2009. p. 109.
- ^
a
b
c
O'Conner and Kellerman 2009. p. 21.
- ^
a
b
Fogarty 2010. "Top Ten Grammar Myths."
-
^
Fogarty 2011. pp. 45–46.
-
^
Burchfield 1996. p. 617.
-
^
O'Conner and Kellerman 2009. p. 22.
-
^
"A misattribution no longer to be put up with". Language
Log. 12 December 2004.
Retrieved 29 May 2013.
-
^
a
b
c
Cutts 2009. p. 111.
-
^
O'Conner and Kellerman 2009. p. 17.
-
^
O'Conner and Kellerman 2009. pp. 18–20.
-
^
Howard 1984. p. 130.
-
^
University of Chicago Writing Program.
-
^
O'Conner and Kellerman 2009. p. 19.
-
^
Butterfield 2008. p. 136.
-
^
University of Chicago Press 2010. p. 257.
-
^
Burchfield 1996. p. 52.
-
^
Garner 2003. p. 44.
-
^
Garner 2003. p. 118.
-
^
Burchfield 1996. p. 121.
-
^
Walsh 2004. pp. 61, 68–69.
-
^
Pullum 2009.
-
^
a
b
Brians 2009. p. 169.
-
^
Fogarty 2010. "Active Voice Versus Passive Voice."
-
^
Garner 2003. p. 592.
-
^ Jenny Cheshire,
"Myth 14: Double Negatives are Illogical" in
Bauer and Trudgill. p. 113.
-
^
O'Conner 2009. p. 208.
-
^
O'Conner 2009. p. 217.
-
^
O'Conner 2009. p. 241. (see
litotes)
- ^
a
b
Kephart,
Ronald (February 27, 2009).
"Double Negatives". The Cranky Linguist.
-
^
Brians 2009. p. 70.
-
^
Fogarty 2008. p. 85.
-
^
Spencer 2011
-
^
a
b
Bringhurst 2005. p. 39.
-
^
a
b
Cutts 2009. p. 112.
-
^
Nordquist 2011.
-
^
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill 2011.
-
^
Walsh 2004. p. 61, 67–68.
-
^
O'Conner and Kellerman 2009. pp. 32–34.
-
^
[1]. Saint Joseph’s Preparatory School
-
^
[2]
Basic Composition.com
-
^
[3]
Illinois Valley Community College.
-
^
American Heritage, usage note
-
^
http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/badly?view=uk
-
^ "I feel badly" can
also mean "When it comes to feeling, I do it poorly."
-
^
Brians 2009. p. 25.
-
^
Brians 2009. p. 28.
-
^ "Beg",
Merriam-Webster online, accessed 3 November 2011,
[4].
-
^
Brians 2009. p. 108.
-
^
Free Dictionary. "Irregardless";
Dictionary.com. "Irregardless";
Oxford English Dictionary. "Irregardless";
Cambridge Dictionaries Online. "Irregardless";
YourDictionary.com. "Irregardless";
BeeDictionary.com. "Irregardless";
Scrabble Word Finder. "Irregardless";
AllWords.com. "Irregardless";
Vocabulary.com. "Irregardless";
Collins Dictionaries. "Irregardless";
Lexicus. "Irregardless".
-
^
"Common vocabulary errors". Missouri University of Science
and Technology. 2012.
Retrieved 2012-09-18.
"Style Guide". University of Notre Dame.
Retrieved 2012-09-18.
"Tricky Words". University of Texas at Austin.
Retrieved 2012-09-18.
-
^
McIntyre, John (2011).
"Don't hang the lexicographers".
Retrieved 2012-09-27.
-
^
Peters, Mark (2011).
"Let's Bury the Not-a-Word Myth".
Retrieved 2012-09-25.
-
^
Carey, Stan (2010-07-12).
"'Not a word' is not an argument".
Retrieved 2012-09-25.
-
^
Fogarty, Mignon (2008-09-12).
"Is "Funnest" a Word?".
Retrieved 2012-09-25.
-
^
"Thusly is not a Word?". 2012-03-21.
Retrieved 2012-09-25.
-
^
Vokloh, Eugene (2007-08-23).
"Is Not A Word".
Retrieved 2012-09-25.
-
^
Dictionary.com. "Conversate";
AllWords.com. "Conversate";
Lexicus. "Conversate".
-
^
Dictionary.com. "Funnest";
Oxford English Dictionary. "Fun"
Scrabble Word Finder. "Funnest";
AllWords.com. "Funnest";
Lexicus. "Funnest".
-
^
Dictionary.com. "Impactful";
Oxford English Dictionary. "Impactful";
Scrabble Word Finder. "Impactful";
Collins Dictionaries. "Impactful";
Lexicus. "Impactful".
-
^
Free Dictionary. "Mentee";
Dictionary.com. "Mentee";
Oxford English Dictionary. "Mentee";
YourDictionary.com. "Mentee";
Scrabble Word Finder. "Mentee";
AllWords.com. "Mentee";
Vocabulary.com. "Mentee";
Collins Dictionaries. "Mentee";
Lexicus. "Mentee".
-
^
Free Dictionary. "Thusly";
Dictionary.com. "Thusly";
Oxford English Dictionary. "Thusly";
YourDictionary.com. "Thusly";
Scrabble Word Finder. "Thusly";
AllWords.com. "Thusly";
Vocabulary.com. "Thusly";
Collins Dictionaries. "Thusly";
Lexicus. "Thusly".
-
^
Brians 2009. p. 124.
-
^
Merriam-Webster 1995. p. 652.
-
^
a
b
O'Conner and Kellerman 2009. p. 77.
-
^
Bratcher 2007.
-
^
O'Conner and Kellerman 2009. p. 78.
-
^
Brians 2009. p. 255.
-
^
The Churchill Centre and Museum at the Churchill War Rooms,
London 2011. (The original text is italicized.)
-
^
Lloyd 1938. p. 19. cited in
University of Chicago Press 2010. p. 257.
-
^
Fogarty 2010. "Active Voice Versus Passive Voice."
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Peter, eds. (1998). Language Myths. London: Penguin Books.
ISBN 978-0-14-026023-6.
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December 2007).
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James & Company.
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(1996).
Fowler's Modern English Usage. Oxford: Oxford University
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ISBN 0-19-869126-2.
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(2008). Damp Squid: The English Language Laid Bare. Oxford:
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ISBN 978-0-19-923906-1.
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Museum at the Churchill War Rooms, London.
"Famous Quotations and Stories".
Retrieved 30 August 2011.
-
Fogarty, Mignon (2008). Grammar Girl's Quick and Dirty Tips
for Better Writing. New York: Holt Paperbacks.
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Fogarty, Mignon (22 July 2010).
"Active Voice Versus Passive Voice". Grammar Girl: Quick and
Dirty Tips for Better Writing.
Retrieved 28 May 2011.
-
Fogarty, Mignon (4 March 2010).
"Top Ten Grammar Myths". Grammar Girl: Quick and Dirty Tips
for Better Writing. Retrieved
28 May 2011.
-
Fogarty, Mignon (2011). Grammar Girl Presents the Ultimate
Writing Guide for Students. New York: Henry Holt & Company.
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ISBN 978-0-8050-8943-1.
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Garner, Bryan A. (2003).
Garner's Modern American Usage. New York: Oxford University
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About Face: Reviving the Rules of Typography. Switzerland:
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(1938). We Who Speak English: and Our Ignorance of Our Mother
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"Irregardless". Merriam-Webster.
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Kellerman, Stewart (2009). Origins of the Specious: Myths and
Misconceptions of the English Language. New York: Random House.
ISBN 978-1-4000-6660-5.
- O'Conner, Patricia T.
(2009). Woe is I: The Grammarphobe's Guide to Better English in
Plain English (Third ed.). New York: Riverhead Books.
ISBN 978-1-59448-890-0.
-
Pullum, Geoffrey K. (17 April 2009).
"50 Years of Stupid Grammar Advice". The Chronicle Review.
The Chronicle of Higher Education.
Retrieved 28 May 2011.
- Spencer, David (24 May
2011).
"The Curious Misconception Surrounding Sentence Spacing".
Type Desk. Matador. Retrieved
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Type Rules!: The Designer's Guide to Professional Typography
(3rd ed.). New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.
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ISBN 978-0-226-10420-1.
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"Grammar Resources". University of Chicago Writing Program.
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ISBN 978-0-07-142268-0.
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Dictionaries
External links
- Patricia T. O'Conner and Stewart
Kellerman (2003).
"Grammar Myths". Grammarphobia.com. Grammarphobia.com.
Retrieved 4 June 2011.
- Richard Nordquist (2011).
"Is It Wrong to End a Sentence in a Preposition?". About.com.
New York Times Company. Retrieved
8 June 2011.
Lists additional published sources that comment on ending a sentence
with a preposition.
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1)
scrivi
le parole inglesi dentro la
striscia gialla 2)
seleziona il testo 3)
clicca "Ascolta il testo"
DA INGLESE A ITALIANO
Inserire
nella casella Traduci la parola
INGLESE e cliccare
Go.
DA ITALIANO A INGLESE
Impostare INGLESE anziché italiano e
ripetere la procedura descritta.
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