Chocolate
Chocolate most commonly comes in dark, milk, and
white varieties, with cocoa solids contributing to the brown
coloration |
Details |
Main
ingredient(s) |
Chocolate liquor |
Chocolate
i/ˈtʃɒklət/
is a processed, typically sweetened
food
produced from the seed of the tropical
Theobroma cacao tree. Cacao has been cultivated for at least
three millennia in
Mexico,
Central America and
Northern South America. Its earliest documented use is around
1100 BC. The majority of the
Mesoamerican people made chocolate beverages, including the
Aztecs,
who made it into a beverage known as
xocolātl
[ʃo'kolaːt͡ɬ], a
Nahuatl word meaning "bitter water". The seeds of the cacao tree
have an intense
bitter taste, and must be
fermented to develop the flavor.
After fermentation, the beans are dried, then cleaned, and then
roasted, and the shell is removed to produce cacao nibs. The nibs
are then ground to
cocoa mass, pure chocolate in rough form. Because this cocoa
mass usually is liquefied then molded with or without other
ingredients, it is called
chocolate liquor. The liquor also may be processed into two
components:
cocoa solids and
cocoa butter. Unsweetened
baking chocolate (bitter chocolate) contains primarily cocoa
solids and cocoa butter in varying proportions. Much of the
chocolate consumed today is in the form of
sweet chocolate, combining cocoa solids, cocoa butter or other
fat, and sugar.
Milk chocolate is sweet chocolate that additionally contains
milk powder or condensed milk.
White chocolate contains cocoa butter, sugar, and milk but no
cocoa solids.
Cocoa solids contain
alkaloids such as
theobromine,
phenethylamine and
caffeine.[1]
These have physiological effects on the body and are linked to
serotonin levels in the brain. Some research found that
chocolate, eaten in moderation, can lower blood pressure.[2]
The presence of theobromine renders chocolate toxic to some animals,[3]
especially dogs and cats.
Chocolate has become one of the most popular food types and
flavors in the world.
Chocolate chip cookies have become very common, and very
popular, in most parts of Europe and North America. Gifts of
chocolate molded into different shapes have become traditional on
certain holidays. Chocolate is also used in cold and hot beverages,
to produce
chocolate milk and
hot chocolate.
Cocoa mass was used originally in
Mesoamerica both as a beverage and as an ingredient in foods.
Chocolate played a special role in both
Maya and Aztec royal and religious events. Priests presented
cacao seeds as offerings to the deities and served chocolate drinks
during sacred ceremonies. All of the areas that were conquered by
the Aztecs that grew cacao beans were ordered to pay them as a tax,
or as the Aztecs called it, a "tribute".[4]
The Europeans
sweetened and fattened it by adding refined sugar and milk, two
ingredients unknown to the Mexicans. By contrast, the Europeans
never infused it into their general diet, but have compartmentalized
its use to sweets and desserts. In the 19th century, Briton
John Cadbury developed an emulsification process to make solid
chocolate, creating the modern chocolate bar. Although cocoa is
originally from the Americas, today Western Africa produces almost
two-thirds of the world's cocoa, with
Côte d'Ivoire growing almost half of it.
Etymology
"Traités nouveaux & curieux du café du thé et du
chocolate", by Philippe Sylvestre Dufour, 1685.
The word "chocolate" entered the English language from Spanish.[5]
How the word came into Spanish is less certain, and there are
competing explanations. Perhaps the most cited explanation is that
"chocolate" comes from Nahuatl, the language of the Aztecs, from the
word chocolātl, which many sources derived from xocolātl
[ʃokolaːtɬ], from xococ 'sour'
or 'bitter', and ātl 'water' or 'drink'.[5]
However, as
William Bright noted[6]
the word "chocolatl" does not occur in central Mexican
colonial sources, making this an unlikely derivation.
Santamaria[7]
gives a derivation from the
Yucatec Maya word "chokol" meaning 'hot', and the Nahuatl "atl"
meaning 'water'. Sophie and
Michael D. Coe agree with this etymology.
Pointing to various sources dating from the time of the Spanish
conquest, they identify cacahuatl ("cacao water") as the
original Nahuatl word for the cold beverage consumed by the Aztecs.
Noting that using a word with caca in it to describe a thick
brown beverage would not have gone over well with most speakers of
Spanish because "caca"
means 'faeces'
in Spanish, the Coes suggest that the Spanish colonisers combined
the Nahuatl atl with the Yucatec Maya chocol, for,
unlike the Aztec, the Maya tended to drink chocolate heated. The
Spanish preferred the warm Mayan preparation of the beverage to the
cold Aztec one, and so the colonisers substituted chocol in
place of the culturally unacceptable caca.[8]
More recently, Dakin and
Wichmann derive it from another Nahuatl term, "chicolatl" from
eastern Nahuatl, meaning "beaten drink". They derive this term from
the word for the frothing stick, "chicoli".[9]
However, the Coes write that xicalli referred to the gourd
out of which the beverage was consumed and that the use of a
frothing stick (known as a molinollo) was a product of
creolisation between the Spanish and Aztec; the original
frothing method used by the indigenous people was simply pouring the
drink from a height into another vessel.[8]
History
Mesoamerica
history
A Mayan chief forbids a person to touch a jar of
chocolate
Chocolate has been used as a drink for nearly all of its history.
The earliest record of using chocolate dates back before the
Olmec.
In November 2007, archaeologists reported finding evidence of the
oldest known cultivation and use of cacao at a site in Puerto
Escondido,
Honduras, dating from about 1100 to 1400 BC.[10]
The residues found and the kind of vessel they were found in
indicate the initial use of cacao was not simply as a beverage, but
the white pulp around the cacao beans was likely used as a source of
fermentable sugars for an alcoholic drink.[10]
The Maya civilization grew cacao trees in their backyards,[11]
and used the cacao seeds the trees produced to make a frothy, bitter
drink.[12]
Documents in
Maya hieroglyphs stated chocolate was used for ceremonial
purposes, in addition to everyday life.[13]
The chocolate residue found in an early
ancient Maya pot in Río Azul,
Guatemala, suggests the Maya were drinking chocolate around
400 AD.
Mayan writing referring to cocoa.
The sweet chocolate residue found in jars from the site of Puerto
Escondido in Honduras from around 1100 BC is the earliest found
evidence of the use of cacao to date.[14]
An early Classic (460–480 AD) period Mayan tomb from the site of Rio
Azul, Guatemala, had vessels with the
Maya glyph for cacao on them with residue of a chocolate drink.[15]
The Maya are generally given credit for creating the first modern
chocolate beverage over 2,000 years ago, despite the fact that the
beverage would undergo many more changes in Europe.[16]
By the 15th century, the
Aztecs gained control of a large part of Mesoamerica, and
adopted cacao into their culture. They associated chocolate with
Xochiquetzal, the goddess of fertility,[17]
and often used chocolate beverages as sacred offerings.[15]
The Aztec adaptation of the drink was a bitter, frothy, spicy drink
called xocolatl, made much the same way as the Mayan
chocolate drinks. It was often seasoned with
vanilla,
chile pepper, and
achiote, and was believed to fight
fatigue, which is probably attributable to the theobromine
content, a mood enhancer. Because cacao would not grow in the dry
central Mexican highlands and had to be imported, chocolate was an
important luxury good throughout the Aztec empire, and cocoa beans
were often used as currency.[18]
For example, the Aztecs used a system in which one turkey cost one
hundred cacao beans and one fresh
avocado was worth three beans.[19]
South American and European cultures have used cocoa to treat
diarrhea for hundreds of years.[20]
All of the areas ruled by the Aztecs were ordered to pay a tax,
leading those that grew the beans to offer cacao seeds as tribute.[21]
European
adaptation
Chocolate soon became a fashionable drink of the
nobility after the discovery of the Americas.
The
morning chocolate by
Pietro Longhi; Venice, 1775–1780.
The first European contact with chocolate came when
Montezuma (then
tlatoani of
Tenochtitlan) introduced
Hernán Cortés, a Spanish
conquistador, to xocolatl in the 16th century.[15]
Antonio de Solís,
Philip IV's official Chronicler of the Indies, described
Montezuma customarily taking a chocolate beverage after meals, as
part of a sumptuous daily ritual:
“ |
He
had Cups of Gold, and Salvers of the same; and sometimes he
drank out of Cocoas [i.e., coconut shells], and natural
Shells, very richly set with Jewels.[...] When he had done
eating, he usually took a Kind of Chocolate, made after the
Manner of the Country, that is, the Substance of the Nut
beat up with the Mill till the Cup was filled more with
Froth than with Liquor; after which he used to smoak Tobacco
perfum'd with liquid Amber.[22] |
” |
Jose de Acosta, a Spanish
Jesuit missionary who lived in Peru and then Mexico in the later
16th century, wrote of it:
“ |
Loathsome to such as are not acquainted with it, having a
scum or froth that is very unpleasant taste. Yet it is a
drink very much esteemed among the Indians, where with they
feast noble men who pass through their country. The
Spaniards, both men and women that are accustomed to the
country are very greedy of this Chocolate. They say they
make diverse sorts of it, some hot, some cold, and some
temperate, and put therein much of that "chili"; yea, they
make paste thereof, the which they say is good for the
stomach and against the
catarrh.[23] |
” |
The first recorded shipment of chocolate to Europe for commercial
purposes was in a shipment from
Veracruz to
Sevilla in 1585.[17]
It was still served as a beverage, but the Europeans added cane
sugar to counteract the natural bitterness and removed the chili
pepper while retaining the vanilla, in addition they added cinnamon
as well as other spices.[15]
What the Spaniards then called "chocolatl" was said to be a
beverage consisting of a chocolate base flavored with vanilla and
other spices that was served cold.[24][25]
Montezuma's court reportedly drank about 2,000 cups of xocolatl
per day, 50 of which were consumed by Montezuma himself.
Until the 16th century, no European had ever heard of the popular
drink from the Central and South American peoples.[26]
It was not until the Spanish conquest of the Aztecs that chocolate
could be imported to Europe. In Spain, it quickly became a court
favorite. In a century it had spread and become popular throughout
the European continent.[26]
To keep up with the high demand for this new drink, Spanish armies
began enslaving Mesoamericans to produce cacao.[27]
Even with cacao harvesting becoming a regular business, only royalty
and the well-connected could afford to drink this expensive import.[28]
Before long, the Spanish began growing cacao beans on plantations,
and using an African workforce to help manage them.[29]
The situation was different in England. Put simply, anyone with
money could buy it.[30]
The first chocolate house opened in London in 1657.[30]
In 1689, noted physician and collector
Hans Sloane developed a milk chocolate drink in
Jamaica which was initially used by
apothecaries, but later sold to the Cadbury brothers in 1897.[31]
For hundreds of years, the chocolate-making process remained
unchanged. When the
Industrial Revolution arrived, many changes occurred that
brought about the food today in its modern form. The Dutch
van Houten family's inventions made mass production of shiny,
tasty chocolate bars and related products possible. In the 18th
century, mechanical mills were created that squeezed out cocoa
butter, which in turn helped to create hard, durable chocolate.[32]
But, it was not until the arrival of the Industrial Revolution that
these mills were put to bigger use. Not long after the revolution
cooled down, companies began advertising this new invention to sell
many of the chocolate treats we see today.[33]
When new machines were produced, people began experiencing and
consuming chocolate worldwide.[34]
At the end of the 18th century, the first form of solid chocolate
was invented in
Turin
by Doret. This chocolate was sold in large quantities from 1826 by
Pierre Paul Caffarel in Italy. In 1819,
F. L. Cailler opened the first
Swiss chocolate factory. In 1828,
Dutchman Coenraad Johannes van Houten patented a method for
extracting the fat from cocoa beans and making powdered cocoa and
cocoa butter. Van Houten also developed the "so-called"
Dutch process of treating chocolate with
alkali
to remove the bitter taste. This made it possible to form the modern
chocolate bar. The German company Jordan & Timaeus sold the first
known chocolate bar made from cocoa, sugar and goat's milk in 1839.[35]
In England, the company,
J. S. Fry & Sons discovered a way to mix some of the cocoa
butter back into the Dutched chocolate, and added sugar, creating a
paste that could be moulded. This led to the first British chocolate
bar in 1847, followed in 1849 by the
Cadbury brothers.
In 1865, an unknown employee at the
Ghirardelli Chocolate Company discovered the
Broma process of separating cocoa butter from cocoa solids
(namely, that if chocolate is hung in a bag in a warm room, the
butter will drip out naturally over time).
Daniel Peter, a
Swiss candle maker, joined his father-in-law's chocolate
business. In 1867, he began experimenting with milk as an
ingredient. He brought his new product, milk chocolate, to market in
1875. He was assisted in removing the water content from the milk to
prevent mildewing by a neighbour, a baby food manufacturer named
Henri Nestlé.
Rodolphe Lindt invented the process called
conching, which involves heating and grinding the chocolate
solids very finely to ensure that the liquid is evenly blended. This
enabled
Milton Hershey to make chocolate even more popular by
mass-producing affordable chocolate bars.
Types
Chocolate is commonly used as a coating for various
fruits and fillings, such as
cherries.
Disk of chocolate (about 4cm in diameter), as sold in
Central America, for making hot cocoa. Note that the
chocolate pictured here is soft, can easily be crumbled
by hand, and already has sugar added.
Several types of chocolate can be distinguished. Pure,
unsweetened chocolate contains primarily cocoa solids and cocoa
butter in varying proportions. Much of the chocolate consumed today
is in the form of sweet chocolate, combining chocolate with sugar.
Milk chocolate is sweet chocolate that additionally contains milk
powder or condensed milk. In the U.K. and Ireland milk chocolate
must contain a minimum of 20% total dry cocoa solids; in the rest of
the European Union the minimum is 25%.[36]
"White chocolate" contains cocoa butter, sugar, and milk, but no
cocoa solids. Chocolate contains alkaloids such as theobromine and
phenethylamine, which have some physiological effects in humans, but
the presence of theobromine renders it toxic to some animals, such
as dogs and cats.[37]
It has been linked to serotonin levels in the brain.
Dark chocolate has been promoted for unproven health benefits,[38]
as it seems to possess substantial amount of
antioxidants that reduce the formation of
free radicals.
White chocolate is formed from a mixture of sugar, cocoa butter
and milk solids. Although its texture is similar to milk and dark
chocolate, it does not contain any cocoa solids. Because of this,
many countries do not consider white chocolate as chocolate at all.[39]
Although first introduced by
Hebert Candies in 1955,
Mars, Incorporated was the first to produce white chocolate
within the United States. Because it does not contain any cocoa
solids, white chocolate does not contain any theobromine, meaning it
can be consumed by animals. It is usually not used for cooking.
Dark chocolate is produced by adding fat and sugar to the cacao
mixture. The
U.S. Food and Drug Administration calls this "sweet chocolate",
and requires a 15% concentration of chocolate liquor. European rules
specify a minimum of 35% cocoa solids.[36]
Dark chocolate, with its high cocoa content, is a rich source of
epicatechin and
gallic acid, which are thought to possess cardioprotective
properties. Dark chocolate has also been said to reduce
the
possibility of a heart attack when consumed regularly in small
amounts.[40]
Semisweet chocolate is a dark chocolate with a low sugar content.
Bittersweet chocolate is chocolate liquor to which some sugar
(typically a third), more cocoa butter, vanilla and sometimes
lecithin have been added. It has less sugar and more liquor than
semisweet chocolate, but the two are interchangeable in baking.
Unsweetened chocolate is pure chocolate liquor, also known as
bitter or baking chocolate. It is unadulterated chocolate: the pure,
ground, roasted chocolate beans impart a strong, deep chocolate
flavor.
Raw chocolate, often referred to as raw cacao, is always dark and
a minimum of 75% cacao. Because the act of processing results in the
loss of certain vitamins and minerals (such as magnesium), some
consider raw cacao to be a more nutritious form of chocolate.[41]
Some people who purchase chocolate off the store shelf can be
disappointed when they see whitish spots on the dark chocolate part.
This is called
chocolate bloom and is not an indication of chocolate gone bad.
Instead, this is just an indication that sugar and/or fat has
separated due to poor storage.
Production
Chocolate is created from the cocoa bean. A cacao tree
with fruit pods in various stages of ripening
Roughly two-thirds of the entire world's cocoa is produced in
West Africa, with 43% sourced from Côte d'Ivoire,[42]
where child labor is a common practice to obtain the product.[43][44][45]
According to the World Cocoa Foundation, some 50 million people
around the world depend on cocoa as a source of livelihood.[46]
In the UK, most chocolatiers purchase their chocolate from them, to
melt, mold and package to their own design.[47]
Chocolate is any product made primarily of cocoa solids and cocoa
butter.
Production costs can be decreased by reducing cocoa solid content
or by substituting cocoa butter with another fat. Cocoa growers
object to allowing the resulting food to be called "chocolate", due
to the risk of lower demand for their crops.[46]
The sequencing in 2010 of genome of the cacao tree may allow yields
to be improved.[48]
There are two main jobs associated with creating chocolate candy,
chocolate makers and chocolatiers. Chocolate makers use harvested
cacao beans and other ingredients to produce
couverture chocolate (covering). Chocolatiers use the finished
couverture to make chocolate candies (bars,
truffles, etc.).[49]
Cacao varieties
Chocolate is made from
cocoa beans, the dried and partially fermented seeds of the
cacao tree (Theobroma cacao), a small (4–8 m (or 15–26 ft)
tall)
evergreen tree native to the deep tropical region of the
Americas. Recent genetic studies suggest that the most common
genotype of the plant originated in the
Amazon basin and was gradually transported by humans throughout
South and Central America. Early forms of another genotype have also
been found in what is now
Venezuela. The scientific name,
Theobroma, means "food of the
deities".[50]
The fruit, called a cacao pod, is ovoid, 15–30 cm (or 6–12 in) long
and 8–10 cm (3–4 in) wide, ripening yellow to orange, and weighs
about 500 g (1 lb) when ripe.
Cacao trees are small, understory trees that need rich,
well-drained soils. They naturally grow within 20 degrees of either
side of the equator because they need about 2000 millimeters of
rainfall a year, and temperatures in the range of 21 to 32 °C. Cacao
trees cannot tolerate a temperature lower than 15 °C (59 °F).[51]
The three main varieties of
cacao beans used in chocolate are
criollo, forastero, and trinitario.
Representing only five percent of all cocoa beans grown,[52]
criollo is the rarest and most expensive cocoa on the market, and is
native to Central America, the
Caribbean islands and the northern tier of South American
states.[53]
There is some dispute about the genetic purity of cocoas sold today
as criollo, as most populations have been exposed to the genetic
influence of other varieties. Criollos are particularly difficult to
grow, as they are vulnerable to a variety of environmental threats
and produce low yields of cocoa per tree. The flavor of criollo is
described as delicate yet complex, low in classic chocolate flavor,
but rich in "secondary" notes of long duration.[54]
The most commonly grown bean is forastero,[52]
a large group of wild and cultivated cacaos, most likely native to
the Amazon basin. The African cocoa crop is entirely of the
forastero variety. They are significantly hardier and of higher
yield than criollo. The source of most chocolate marketed,[52]
forastero cocoas are typically strong in classic "chocolate" flavor,
but have a short duration and are unsupported by secondary flavors,
producing "quite bland" chocolate.[52]
Trinitario is a natural hybrid of criollo and forastero.
Trinitario originated in
Trinidad after an introduction of forastero to the local criollo
crop. Nearly all cacao produced over the past five decades is of the
forastero or lower-grade trinitario varieties.[55]
Processing
Video of cacao beans being ground and mixed with other
ingredients to make chocolate at a
Mayordomo store in
Oaxaca, Mexico
Cacao pods are harvested by cutting the pods from the tree using
a
machete, or by knocking them off the tree using a stick. The
beans with their surrounding pulp are removed from the pods and
placed in piles or bins, allowing access to microorganisms so that
fermentation of the
pectin-containing
material can begin.
Yeast
produce
ethanol,
lactic acid bacteria produce
lactic acid and
acetic acid bacteria produce
acetic acid. The fermentation process, which takes up to seven
days, also produces several flavor precursors, eventually resulting
in the familiar chocolate taste.[56]
It is important to harvest the pods when they are fully ripe
because if the pod is unripe, the beans will have a low cocoa butter
content, or there will be insufficient sugars in the white pulp for
fermentation, resulting in a weak flavor. After fermentation, the
beans must be quickly dried to prevent mold growth. Climate and
weather permitting, this is done by spreading the beans out in the
sun from five to seven days.[57]
The dried beans are then transported to a chocolate manufacturing
facility. The beans are cleaned (removing twigs, stones, and other
debris),
roasted, and graded. Next, the shell of each bean is removed to
extract the nib. Finally, the nibs are ground and liquefied,
resulting in pure chocolate in fluid form: chocolate liquor.[58]
The liquor can be further processed into two components: cocoa
solids and cocoa butter.[59]
Blending
Chocolate liquor is blended with the cocoa butter in varying
quantities to make different types of chocolate or couvertures. The
basic blends of ingredients for the various types of chocolate (in
order of highest quantity of cocoa liquor first), are as follows:
- Dark chocolate: sugar, cocoa butter, cocoa liquor, and
(sometimes) vanilla
- Milk chocolate: sugar, cocoa butter, cocoa liquor, milk or
milk powder, and vanilla
- White chocolate: sugar, cocoa butter, milk or milk powder,
and vanilla
Usually, an
emulsifying agent, such as
soy lecithin, is added, though a few manufacturers prefer to
exclude this ingredient for purity reasons and to remain
GMO-free, sometimes at the cost of a perfectly smooth texture.
Some manufacturers are now using
PGPR, an artificial emulsifier derived from castor oil that
allows them to reduce the amount of cocoa butter while maintaining
the same
mouthfeel.
The texture is also heavily influenced by processing,
specifically conching (see below). The more expensive chocolate
tends to be processed longer and thus have a smoother texture and
mouthfeel, regardless of whether emulsifying agents are added.
Different manufacturers develop their own "signature" blends
based on the above formulas, but varying proportions of the
different constituents are used. The finest, plain dark chocolate
couvertures contain at least 70% cocoa (both solids and butter),
whereas milk chocolate usually contains up to 50%. High-quality
white chocolate couvertures contain only about 35% cocoa.
Producers of high quality, small batch chocolate argue that mass
production produces bad quality chocolate.[52]
Some mass-produced chocolate contains much less cocoa (as low as 7%
in many cases), and fats other than cocoa butter. Vegetable oils and
artificial vanilla flavor are often used in cheaper chocolate to
mask poorly fermented and/or roasted beans.[52]
In 2007, the Chocolate Manufacturers Association in the United
States, whose members include
Hershey,
Nestlé,
and
Archer Daniels Midland,
lobbied the
Food and Drug Administration to change the legal definition of
chocolate to let them substitute
partially hydrogenated vegetable oils for cocoa butter, in
addition to using artificial sweeteners and milk substitutes.[60]
Currently, the
U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) does not allow a product
to be referred to as "chocolate" if the product contains any of
these ingredients.[61][62]
Conching
Chocolate melanger mixing raw ingredients
The penultimate process is called conching. A conche is a
container filled with metal beads, which act as grinders. The
refined and blended chocolate mass is kept in a liquid state by
frictional heat. Chocolate prior to conching has an uneven and
gritty texture. The conching process produces cocoa and sugar
particles smaller than the tongue can detect, hence the smooth feel
in the mouth. The length of the conching process determines the
final smoothness and quality of the chocolate. High-quality
chocolate is conched for about 72 hours, lesser grades about four to
six hours. After the process is complete, the chocolate mass is
stored in tanks heated to approximately 45–50 °C (113–122 °F) until
final processing.[63]
Tempering
The final process is called tempering. Uncontrolled
crystallization of cocoa butter typically results in crystals of
varying size, some or all large enough to be clearly seen with the
naked eye. This causes the surface of the chocolate to appear
mottled and matte, and causes the chocolate to crumble rather than
snap when broken.[64]
The uniform sheen and crisp bite of properly processed chocolate are
the result of consistently small cocoa butter crystals produced by
the tempering process.
The fats in cocoa butter can crystallize in six different forms (polymorphous
crystallization).[64][65]
The primary purpose of tempering is to assure that only the best
form is present. The six different crystal forms have different
properties.
Crystal |
Melting temp. |
Notes |
I |
17 °C
(63 °F) |
Soft, crumbly, melts too easily |
II |
21 °C
(70 °F) |
Soft, crumbly, melts too easily |
III |
26 °C
(79 °F) |
Firm, poor snap, melts too easily |
IV |
28 °C
(82 °F) |
Firm, good snap, melts too easily |
V |
34 °C
(93 °F) |
Glossy, firm, best snap, melts near body temperature (37
°C) |
VI |
36 °C
(97 °F) |
Hard, takes weeks to form |
Molten chocolate and a piece of a chocolate bar
Making chocolate considered "good" is about forming as many type
V crystals as possible. This provides the best appearance and
texture and creates the most stable crystals, so the texture and
appearance will not degrade over time. To accomplish this, the
temperature is carefully manipulated during the crystallization.
Generally, the chocolate is first heated to
45 °C
(113 °F) to melt all six
forms of crystals.[64][65]
Next, the chocolate is cooled to about
27 °C
(81 °F), which will allow
crystal types IV and V to form. At this temperature, the chocolate
is agitated to create many small crystal "seeds" which will serve as
nuclei to create small crystals in the chocolate. The chocolate is
then heated to about 31 °C
(88 °F) to eliminate any
type IV crystals, leaving just type V. After this point, any
excessive heating of the chocolate will destroy the temper and this
process will have to be repeated. However, there are other methods
of chocolate tempering used. The most common variant is introducing
already tempered, solid "seed" chocolate. The temper of chocolate
can be measured with a
chocolate temper meter to ensure accuracy and consistency. A
sample cup is filled with the chocolate and placed in the unit which
then displays or prints the results.
Two classic ways of manually tempering chocolate are:
- Working the molten chocolate on a heat-absorbing surface,
such as a stone slab, until thickening indicates the presence of
sufficient crystal "seeds"; the chocolate is then gently warmed
to working temperature.
- Stirring solid chocolate into molten chocolate to
"inoculate" the liquid chocolate with crystals (this method uses
the already formed crystals of the solid chocolate to "seed" the
molten chocolate).
Chocolate tempering machines (or temperers) with computer
controls can be used for producing consistently tempered chocolate,
particularly for large volume applications.
Storage
Packaged chocolate in the Ghirardelli Chocolate Company
shop is stored in controlled conditions
Chocolate is very sensitive to temperature and humidity. Ideal
storage temperatures are between 15 and 17 °C (59 and 63 °F), with a
relative humidity of less than 50%. Various types of "blooming"
effects can occur if chocolate is stored or served improperly. Fat
bloom is caused by storage temperature fluctuating or exceeding 24 C
while sugar bloom is caused by temperature below 15 C or excess
humidity. To distinguish between different types of bloom, one can
rub the surface of the chocolate lightly, and if the bloom
disappears, it is fat bloom. One can get rid of bloom by
re-tempering the chocolate or using it for anything that requires
melting the chocolate.[66]
Chocolate is generally stored away from other foods, as it can
absorb different aromas. Ideally, chocolates are packed or wrapped,
and placed in proper storage with the correct humidity and
temperature. Additionally, chocolate is frequently stored in a dark
place or protected from light by wrapping paper.
If refrigerated or frozen without containment, chocolate can
absorb enough moisture to cause a whitish discoloration, the result
of fat or sugar crystals rising to the surface. Moving chocolate
from one temperature extreme to another, such as from a refrigerator
on a hot day, can result in an oily texture. Although visually
unappealing, chocolate suffering from bloom is perfectly safe for
consumption.[67][68][69]
Health effects
Chocolate with various fillings.
- Positive
- Negative
- Chocolate is believed to cause
heartburn because of one of its constituents, theobromine,
relaxes the
oesophageal sphincter muscle, hence permitting stomach
acidic contents to enter into the
oesophagus.[81]
Theobromine is also toxic to many animals because they are
unable to metabolize it (see
theobromine poisoning).[3]
- The unconstrained consumption of large quantities of any
energy-rich food, such as chocolate, without a corresponding
increase in activity, is thought to increase the risk of
obesity. Raw chocolate is high in cocoa butter, a fat which
is removed during chocolate refining, then added back in varying
proportions during the manufacturing process. Manufacturers may
add other fats, sugars, and milk as well, all of which increase
the caloric content of chocolate.
- Chocolate and cocoa contain moderate to high amounts of
oxalate,[82][83][84][85][86][87]
which can cause some health concerns particularly for
individuals at risk for
kidney stones.[88]
- Chocolate absorbs lead from the environment during
production, and there is a slight concern of mild
lead poisoning for some types of chocolate. In a study from
Nigeria, the average lead concentration of cocoa beans was less
than 0.5 ng/g, among the lowest reported values for a natural
food, with lead concentrations ranging from 70–230 ng/g for raw
and processed cocoa.[89]
These measurements "are consistent with market-basket surveys
that have repeatedly listed lead concentrations in chocolate
products among the highest reported for all foods. One source of
contamination of the finished products is tentatively attributed
to atmospheric emissions of leaded gasoline, which is still
being used in Nigeria."[89]
The figures are still comparatively low when compared to
200,000 ng, which is the WHO tolerable daily limit for lead
consumption.[90]
- Research on elderly people showed chocolate might cause
osteoporosis.[91]
- A few studies have documented allergic reactions with
chocolate in children.[81]
- There is some evidence that chocolate may be addictive.[92][93]
Labeling
Some manufacturers provide the percentage of chocolate in a
finished chocolate confection as a label quoting percentage of
"cocoa" or "cacao". It should be noted that this refers to the
combined percentage of both cocoa solids and cocoa butter in the
bar, not just the percentage of cocoa solids.[94]
Chocolates that are
organic[95]
or
fair trade certified[96]
carry labels accordingly.
In the United States, some large chocolate manufacturers lobbied
the federal government to permit confections containing cheaper
hydrogenated vegetable oil in place of cocoa butter to be sold
as "chocolate". In June 2007, as a response to consumer concern
after the proposed change, the FDA reiterated "Cacao fat, as one of
the signature characteristics of the product, will remain a
principal component of standardized chocolate."[97]
Manufacturers
A Hershey chocolate bar. The Hershey Company is one of
the largest chocolate manufacturers in the world.
Many chocolate manufacturers have created products from chocolate
bars to
fudge, hoping to attract more consumers with each creation.
Hershey and Mars have become the largest manufacturers in the world.[citation
needed] Other large manufacturers include
Nestlé,
Kraft Foods and
Lindt.
The Hershey Company, known for their
Hershey bar,
Hershey's Kisses and
Reese's Peanut Butter Cups, is the largest chocolate
manufacturer in North America.[98]
Mars, Incorporated, one of the largest privately owned U.S.
corporations, is a worldwide manufacturer of confectionery and other
food products, with US$21 billion in annual sales in 2006. Mars is
known for
Mars Bar,
Milky Way,
M&M's,
Twix
and
Snickers, as well as other confectionery items, such
Skittles.
Food conglomerates Nestlé SA and Kraft Foods both have chocolate
brands. Nestlé acquired
Rowntree's in 1988 and now market chocolates under their own
brand, including
Smarties and
Kit
Kat; Kraft Foods through its 1990 acquisition of Jacobs
Suchard, now own
Milka
and Suchard. In February 2010, Kraft also acquired
British-based
Cadbury plc, the world's largest confectionery manufacturer.[99]
Cadbury is well known for its
Dairy Milk range and
Creme Egg; Fry's, Trebor Basset, the fair-trade brand
Green & Black's also belong to the group.
The chocolate industry, a steadily growing, $50 billion-a-year
worldwide business centered on the sale and consumption of
chocolate, is prevalent on five out of seven continents.[100]
Big Chocolate, as it is also called, is essentially an oligopoly
between major international chocolate companies in Europe and the
U.S. These U.S. companies, such as Mars and Hershey’s alone,
generate $13 billion a year in chocolate sales and account for
two-thirds of U.S. manufacturers.[101]
However, Europe accounts for 45% of the world's chocolate revenue.[102]
In popular
culture
A box of assorted chocolates, often given as a gift.
Holidays
Chocolate is one of the most popular holiday gifts. Gifts of
chocolate molded into different shapes have become traditional on
certain holidays: chocolate bunnies and
eggs are popular on Easter, chocolate coins on
Hanukkah, snowmen and other holiday symbols on Christmas, and
chocolate
hearts or chocolate in heart-shaped boxes on Valentine's Day.
The International Chocolate Day is observed on 13 September.[103]
On
Valentine's Day, a box of chocolates is traditional, usually
presented with flowers and a
greeting card. It may be given on other holidays, and birthdays.
At
Easter, chocolate eggs are traditional. This is a confection
made primarily of chocolate, and can either be solid, hollow, or
filled with other sweets or fondant. Many confectioners make
holiday-specific chocolate candies, usually variants of their
standard fare. Hollow chocolate bunnies (Easter) and hollow
Santa Claus figures (Christmas) are two examples.
Books and film
Filmmaker Tim Burton at the 2005 premiere of
Charlie
and the Chocolate Factory.
Chocolate has been the center of several successful book and film
adaptations. In 1964,
Roald Dahl published a children's novel titled
Charlie and the Chocolate Factory. The novel centers on a
poor boy named Charlie Bucket who takes a tour through the greatest
chocolate factory in the world, owned by
Willy Wonka. Two film adaptations of the novel were produced.
The first was
Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory, a 1971 film which later
became a
cult classic, and spawned the real world
Willy Wonka Candy Company, which produces chocolate products to
this day. Thirty-four years later, a second film adaptation was
produced, titled
Charlie and the Chocolate Factory. The 2005 film was very
well received by critics[104]
and was one of the highest grossing films that year, earning over
US$470,000,000 worldwide.[105]
Charlie and the Chocolate Factory was also recognized at the
78th Academy Awards, where it was nominated for
Best Costume Design for Gabriella Pesucci.[106]
Like Water for Chocolate (Como agua para chocolate),
a 1989 love story by novelist
Laura Esquivel, was adapted to film in 1992. The plot
incorporates
magical realism with Mexican cuisine, and the title is a
double entendre in its native language, referring both to a
recipe for hot chocolate and to an idiom that is a metaphor for
sexual arousal. The film earned 11
Ariel Awards from the
Academia Mexicana de Artes y Ciencias Cinematográficas,
including Best Picture.
Chocolat, a 1999 novel by
Joanne Harris, tells the story of Vianne Rocher, a young mother,
whose confections change the lives of the townspeople. The 2000 film
adaptation,
Chocolat, also proved successful, grossing over
US$150,000,000 worldwide,[107]
and receiving
Academy Award and
Golden Globe nominations for
Best Picture,
Best Actress, and Best Original Score.[108][109]