Star of Bethlehem

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Adoration of the Magi by Florentine painter Giotto di Bondone (1267-1337). The Star of Bethlehem is shown as a comet above the child. Giotto witnessed an appearance of Halley's Comet in 1301.

See also Star of Bethlehem (plant).

The Star of Bethlehem, also called the Christmas Star or the Jesus Star, was an object in the sky which revealed the birth of Jesus to the magi and later led them to a house where they found the child Jesus and his family, according to the nativity narratives^[1] in the New Testament. The magi were a group of men "from the east" who were inspired by the appearance of the star to travel to the court of King Herod of Judea in Jerusalem.^[2] On the basis of Old Testament prophecy, Herod told the magi that the child they sought was in Bethlehem, a nearby village. The magi went the Bethlehem, found Jesus, paid him homage, gave gifts, and then returned to their "own country."^[3]

Christians regarded the star as a miraculous sign given by God to mark the birth of the Christ (or the Messiah). Ancient theologians claimed that the star was a fulfillment of several prophecies, including the Star Prophecy. In modern times, astronomers have proposed various explanations for the story, including a nova, a planet, a comet, an occultation, and a conjunction (massing of planets). The subject is a favorite at planetarium shows during the Christmas season,^[4] although the Biblical account suggests that the visit of the magi took place some months after Jesus was born.^[5] The visit was traditionally celebrated on Epiphany.

Biblical narrative

The Gospel of Matthew states that "wise men" (Koine Greek magoi) arrived at the court of Herod in Jerusalem and told the king of the star:

The statement that Herod was "frightened"^[8] by what the magi said has led some readers to conclude that Herod did not know of the star before the magi arrived. However, a close reading suggests that Herod was frightened by their statement that the "king of the Jews" had been born rather than by the star itself. He understood this phrase to refer to the Messiah, a leader of the Jewish people whose coming was foretold in Old Testament prophecy. So he asked his advisors where the Messiah could be born.^[9] They answered Bethlehem, birthplace of King David, and quoted the prophet Micah.^[10] The king passed this information along to the magi.^[11]

Adoration of the Magi, Chartres Cathedral, by Jehan de Beauce, France, 16th century.

Matthew's account suggests that the magi knew from the star that the "king of the Jews" had already been born even before they arrived in Jerusalem. According to the Gospel of Luke, Jesus was born in a stable.^[13] By the time the magi arrived, Jesus was a child (paidion), not an infant (brephos) and he was living in a house with his mother.^[14] The magi presented Jesus with gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh.^[15]

In a dream, the magi were warned not to return to Jerusalem, so they "left for their own country by another road."^[16] When Herod realized that he had been tricked, he ordered the execution of all male children in Bethlehem age 2 and under, based on the information the magi had given him concerning the time the star first appeared.^[17]

Interpretations and explanations

A fulfillment of prophecy

Matthew is written in a traditional Jewish style called pesharim, which emphasized the fulfillment of prophecy. The ancients believed that astronomical phenomena were connected to terrestrial events. Miracles were routinely associated with the birth of important people, including the Hebrew patriarchs, as well as Greek and Roman heroes.^[18]

The Star Prophecy^[19] in the Book of Numbers was well-known at the time that Matthew was written. It was cited by Josephus in reference to Vespasian.^[20] Origen, one of the most influential early Christian theologians, discussed the connection between this prophecy and the Star of Bethlehem:

Matthew's use of the word magi connects the visitors to the magi of Babylon who selected Daniel their chief in the Book of Daniel.^[22] The word is usually translated as "wise men" and refers to a person with the gift of interpreting dreams and other portents. Daniel was revered by Jews^[23] for a prophecy he made concerning the Messiah.^[24] If the magi knew of Jewish prophecy, from Daniel or elsewhere, they could have "conjectured that the man whose appearance had been foretold along with that of the star, had actually come into the world," according to Origen.^[25]

The magi's gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh^[14] fulfill another prophecy, this one made by Isaiah.^[26]

The night sky as it appeared looking south from Jerusalem on Nov. 12, 7 BC, 6 p.m. to 9:30 p.m.

An astronomical object

Because the magi told Herod that they saw the star "at its rising,"^[27] many readers have concluded that it was an astronomical object. Although there is no basis for the often repeated claim that the Greek text specifies a predawn or heliacal rising,^[4] it would be odd if professional stargazers felt the need to mention an ordinary nightly rising.

According to Origen, the star was in "the nature of those celestial bodies which appear at times, such as comets, or those meteors which resemble beams of wood, or beards, or wine jars."^[28]

In 1614, German astronomer Johannes Kepler determined that a series of three conjunctions of the planets Jupiter and Saturn occurred in 7 BC and linked this event to the Star of Bethlehem.^[29] Although conjunctions were important in astrology, Kepler was not thinking in astrological terms. He argued that a planetary conjunction could create a nova, which he linked to the Star of Bethlehem.^[29] Modern calculations show that there was always a large gap between the two planets, so these conjunctions were not impressive sights. An ancient almanac has been found in Babylon which covers the events of this period, but it makes no specific reference to the conjunctions.^[30]

Chinese and Korean stargazers observed an object thought to be a nova or a comet around 5 BC.^[31] This object was observed for over 70 days with no movement recorded.^[31] Ancient writers described comets as "hanging over" specific cities, just as the Star of Bethlehem was said to have "stood over" the "place" where Jesus was (persumably the town of Bethlehem).^[32] This phrase was not used to describe other astronomical objects, so perhaps the tail of a comet was thought to point to a specific terrestial location.

Another Star of Bethlehem candidate is Uranus, which was visible at various times. However, it probably moved too slowly to be recognized as a planet.^[33]

A zodiac from a 6th century mosaic at a synagogue in Beit Alpha, Israel

An astrological event

The use of the phrase "king of the Jews" by the magi has led many writers to link the Star of Bethlehem to astrology. In Hellenistic astrology, Jupiter was the king planet and Regulus was the king star.^[34] As they traveled from Jerusalem to Bethlehem, the star "went before" the magi and then "stood over" the place where Jesus was. In astrological interpretations, these phrases are said to refer to retrograde motion and to stationing, i.e. Jupiter appeared to reverse course for a time, then stopped, and finally resumed its normal progression^[35] (This assumes that the magi had an instrument equivalent to an astrolabe that allowed them to detect to the motion of a planet between one night and the next.)

In 3-2 BC, there was a series of seven conjunctions, including three between Jupiter and Regulus and a strikingly close conjunction between Jupiter and Venus on June 17, 2 BC.^[36] "The fusion of two planets would have been a rare and awe-inspiring event," according to an influential paper by Roger Sinnott.^[37]

Astronomer Michael Molnar has proposed a link between a double occultation of Jupiter by the moon in 6 BC in Aries and the Star of Bethlehem.^[38] This event was quite close to the sun and would have been difficult to observe, even with a small telescope.^[39] Occultations of planets by the moon are quite common, but Firmicus Maternus, an astrologer to Roman Emperor Constantine, wrote that an occultation of Jupiter in Aries was a sign of the birth of a divine king.^[40] "When the royal star of Zeus, the planet Jupiter, was in the east this was the most powerful time to confer kingships. Furthermore, the Sun was in Aries where it is exalted. And the Moon was in very close conjunction with Jupiter in Aries," Molnar wrote.^[38] This set of conditions reoccurs every sixty years.^[38]

An historical fiction

Matthew is the only one of the four gospels which mentions either the Star of Bethlehem or the magi. The Gospel of Mark and the hypothetical Q material in Luke and Matthew, considered to be the oldest and most historical material in the gospels under the doctrine of Markan priority,^[41] do not include a nativity narrative or any hint that Jesus was born in Bethlehem.^[42] The highly publicized Jesus Seminar, sponsored by the Westar Institute, concluded that both of the nativity narratives^[1] are almost entirely unhistorical and that Jesus was probably born in Nazareth rather than in Bethlehem.^[43] (Other scholars have suggested Capernaum.)^[44]

As there are no records of failed magi searches, the magi in Matthew seem to have witnessed an event that allowed them to determine with certainty that a king had been born.^[32] But a nova, a comet, or a conjunction would not qualify as a unique event. Moreover, several of the astronomical explanations that have been put forward are equally plausible as birth signifiers.^[32] The magi traveled a great distance, but when they arrive in Bethlehem they merely gave some gifts. They served the storyteller's purpose of glorifying Jesus, but their motives remain obscure.

Instead of focusing on the events around the time of the birth of Jesus, the historical fiction approach considers what sources were available to Matthew when he composed his gospel (AD 85-90) and what events might have influenced his thinking. His description of the miracles and portents attending the birth of Jesus echoed stories concerning the birth of Augustus (63 BC), the first Roman emperor.^[45] Linking a birth to the first appearance of a star was consistent with the popular belief each person's life was linked to a particular star.^[46] Magi and astronomical events were linked in the public mind by the visit to Rome of a delegation of magi at the time of a spectacular appearance of Halley's Comet in AD 66.^[32] This delegation was led by King Tiridates of Armenia, who came seeking confirmation of his title from Emperor Nero. Ancient historian Dio Cassius wrote that, "The King did not return by the route he had following in coming,"^[32] a line echoed in Matthew's account.^[47]

The star's director

The commonly held belief is that the star as described in the gospel narrative was an instrument of God. The Bible never specifically comments on who is directing the star, leading some to believe that it was actually a tool of Satan's. The fact that the star first leads the magi to Herod, who wished to kill Jesus, seems to support this theory. The star then leads them to Jesus, with the intent of return to report to Herod. Instead of being lead by the star back to Herod however, they are then contacted alternatively through a dream, telling them not to return to Herod, instead returning to their country by another road. This leads to the theory that the star was an instrument of Satan's, and the dream to not return to Herod originating from God.^[48]

Determining the year Jesus was born

"Adoration of the Magi," by Jean Fouquet. This illumination is from Heures d'Étienne Chevalier. France, 15th century. The Star of Bethlehem can be seen in the top right. The soldiers and castle in the background may represent the Battle of Castillon (1453).

Which event is most plausible as an explanation of the Star of Bethlehem depends on which year is accepted as the year Jesus was born. Both Luke and Matthew wrote that Jesus was born when Herod was king. According to Josephus, Herod died shortly after a lunar eclipse. This is usually identified as the eclipse of March 13, 4 BC. Jesus was born sometime between the first appearance of the Star of Bethlehem and the time the magi arrived in Herod's court. As Herod ordered the execution of boys age 2 and under, the star must have made its first appearance within the previous two years. This line of reasoning yields a date of 6-4 BC for the nativity.

One problem with the 6-4 BC date is that there was no census at that time, a key element in Luke's nativity narrative. Some modern authors identify Luke's worldwide census with a mass oath taking that occurred in 3-2 BC when Augustus was given the title "father of the nation."^[4] Luke wrote that Jesus was "about thirty" when he began his ministry in AD 29,^[49] which yields a birth year of 3-2 BC.^[50] There were also two lunar eclipses in 1 BC, so it is possible that Herod died at that time.^[51] However, coins issued by Herod's successors show that they dated their reigns as beginning in 4 BC.^[52]

See also

• Star of David
• Seal of Solomon

References

External links

• Video: Star of Bethlehem by Professor Konradin Ferrari d'Occhieppo