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LA GRAMMATICA DI ENGLISH GRATIS IN VERSIONE MOBILE   INFORMATIVA PRIVACY

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WIKIBOOKS
DISPONIBILI
?????????

ART
- Great Painters
BUSINESS&LAW
- Accounting
- Fundamentals of Law
- Marketing
- Shorthand
CARS
- Concept Cars
GAMES&SPORT
- Videogames
- The World of Sports

COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY
- Blogs
- Free Software
- Google
- My Computer

- PHP Language and Applications
- Wikipedia
- Windows Vista

EDUCATION
- Education
LITERATURE
- Masterpieces of English Literature
LINGUISTICS
- American English

- English Dictionaries
- The English Language

MEDICINE
- Medical Emergencies
- The Theory of Memory
MUSIC&DANCE
- The Beatles
- Dances
- Microphones
- Musical Notation
- Music Instruments
SCIENCE
- Batteries
- Nanotechnology
LIFESTYLE
- Cosmetics
- Diets
- Vegetarianism and Veganism
TRADITIONS
- Christmas Traditions
NATURE
- Animals

- Fruits And Vegetables



ARTICLES IN THE BOOK

  1. Active recall
  2. Alzheimer's disease
  3. Amnesia
  4. Anamonic
  5. Anterograde amnesia
  6. Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model
  7. Attention versus memory in prefrontal cortex
  8. Baddeley's Model of Working Memory
  9. Barnes maze
  10. Binding problem
  11. Body memory
  12. Cellular memory
  13. Choice-supportive bias
  14. Chunking
  15. Clive Wearing
  16. Commentarii
  17. Confabulation
  18. Cue-dependent forgetting
  19. Decay theory
  20. Declarative memory
  21. Eidetic memory
  22. Electracy
  23. Emotion and memory
  24. Encoding
  25. Engram
  26. Episodic memory
  27. Executive system
  28. Exosomatic memory
  29. Explicit memory
  30. Exposure effect
  31. Eyewitness memory reconstruction
  32. False memory
  33. False Memory Syndrome Foundation
  34. Flashbulb memory
  35. Forgetting
  36. Forgetting curve
  37. Functional fixedness
  38. Hindsight bias
  39. HM
  40. Human memory process
  41. Hyperthymesia
  42. Iconic memory
  43. Interference theory
  44. Involuntary memory
  45. Korsakoff's syndrome
  46. Lacunar amnesia
  47. Limbic system
  48. Linkword
  49. List of memory biases
  50. Long-term memory
  51. Long-term potentiation
  52. Lost in the mall technique
  53. Memory
  54. Memory and aging
  55. MemoryArchive
  56. Memory consolidation
  57. Memory distrust syndrome
  58. Memory inhibition
  59. Memory span
  60. Method of loci
  61. Mind map
  62. Mnemonic
  63. Mnemonic acronym system
  64. Mnemonic dominic system
  65. Mnemonic link system
  66. Mnemonic major system
  67. Mnemonic peg system
  68. Mnemonic room system
  69. Mnemonic verses
  70. Mnemonist
  71. Philip Staufen
  72. Phonological loop
  73. Picture superiority effect
  74. Piphilology
  75. Positivity effect
  76. Procedural memory
  77. Prospective memory
  78. Recollection
  79. Repressed memory
  80. Retrograde amnesia
  81. Retrospective memory
  82. Rosy retrospection
  83. Self-referential encoding
  84. Sensory memory
  85. Seven Meta Patterns
  86. Shass pollak
  87. Short-term memory
  88. Source amnesia
  89. Spaced repetition
  90. SuperMemo
  91. Synthetic memory
  92. Tally sticks
  93. Testing effect
  94. Tetris effect
  95. The Courage to Heal
  96. The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two
  97. Tip of the tongue
  98. Visual memory
  99. Visual short term memory
  100. Visuospatial sketchpad
  101. VTrain
  102. Working memory


 

 
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    ENGLISHGRATIS.COM è un sito personale di
    Roberto Casiraghi e Crystal Jones
    email: robertocasiraghi at iol punto it

    Roberto Casiraghi           
    INFORMATIVA SULLA PRIVACY              Crystal Jones


    Siti amici:  Lonweb Daisy Stories English4Life Scuolitalia
    Sito segnalato da INGLESE.IT

 
 



THE THEORY OF MEMORY
This article is from:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-referential_encoding

All text is available under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License 

Self-referential encoding

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

 

Investigations into the relationship between memory and the self originated in the field of personality. Theorists held that an individual’s personality included something akin to a "directory" of traits attached to the self, and that the way they interact with others uses this directory as a template for predicting their behaviour. Traits can also be used to explain the past behaviour of oneself or others. Therefore, the "self" acts as an organisational agent for information in an individual’s world.

When asked to list traits describing themselves, most individuals will list positive ones first, such as intelligent, sensitive, friendly, etc. When reading a list of traits in another context, such as the diagnostic criteria for psychopathy, most readers will initially interpret these in relation to themselves, known as "medical student syndrome". Traits may be interpreted with the self as a type of superordinate schema.

Early Experimental Work

The Self-Referential Encoding (SRE) effect holds that information relating to the self is preferentially encoded and organised above other types of information. In healthy individuals, this was first tested by Rogers et al (1977) who replicated Craik & Tulving’s (1975) classic depth-of-processing study. They asked participants to rate 40 descriptive adjectives on one of four tasks; Structural (Big font or small font?), Phonemic (Rhymes with xxx?), Semantic (Means same as xxx?), or Self-reference (Describes you?). This was then followed by an "incidental recall task". This is where participants are asked, without prior warning, to recall as many of the words they have seen as possible within a given time limit. Craik & Tulving’s original experiment showed that structural and phonemic tasks lead only to "shallow" encoding, while the semantic task lead to "deep" encoding and resulted in better recall. Rogers et al hypothesised that information with reference to the self would have even deeper encoding. They found a main effect for self-reference items to be recalled at least twice as well as semantic-encoded items.

In 1982 one of the co-authors on the Rogers et al paper, Nicholas Kuiper, conducted a similar study comparing university students who were mildly depressed with those who were not (Kuiper et al 1982). A set of 60 adjectives were used, split into depressed words (e.g. bleak, dismal, guilty) and non-depressed words (e.g. amiable, curious, loyal) on the basis of a separate independent norming study. There were two tasks, the first being semantic (Does this word have a specific meaning or relate to a specific situation?) and the second self-referential (Describes you?). Four "buffer" items (two non-depressed, two depressed) were used at the start and end of each block but not analysed to avoid primacy and recency effects. Again, scores were transformed to control for biases towards items with "yes" responses. There was a significant main effect of the rating task (self-referential items more likely to be recalled than semantic items) as expected by the self-reference effect. Furthermore, non-depressed participants revealed enhanced recall of non-depressed words vs. depressed words, and mildly depressed participants had superior recall for both depressed and non-depressed words.

One possibility for this effect was that one condition referred to a person while the other did not, and perhaps it is information for people which is preferentially encoded. A second experiment with a new set of participants underwent a similar procedure, only this time the semantic questions were replaced with an other-referent task, "Describes Trudeau?" (the Canadian Prime Minister at the time). Again, non-depressed participants showed enhanced recall for self-referential items but only for non-depressed words, and mild depressives had enhanced recall for depressed words. There were no group effects for the other-referent task, suggesting it is not the involvement of people per se that is relevant, but only the self. Furthermore the enhanced recall is stronger for words which do refer to the self than those that do not. The existence of a negative, depressotypic schema within depression was thought to be more profound in more severe levels of depression, so that in a major depressive condition only negative traits were considered.

References

  • Craik F, Tulving E. "Depth of processing and the retention of words in episodic memory". Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 1975;104:268-94.
  • Kuiper NA, Derry PA. "Depressed and nondepressed content self-reference in mild depressives". J Pers. 1982;50:67-80.
  • Rogers TB, Kuiper NA, Kirker WS. "Self-reference and the encoding of personal information". J Pers. Soc.Psychol. 1977;35:677-88.
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-referential_encoding"