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- Abbe Prevost - MANON LESCAUT
- Alcott, Louisa M. - LITTLE MEN
- Alcott, Louisa M. - LITTLE WOMEN
- Alcott, Louisa May - JACK AND JILL
- Austen, Jane - EMMA
- Austen, Jane - MANSFIELD PARK
- Austen, Jane - NORTHANGER ABBEY
- Austen, Jane - PERSUASION
- Austen, Jane - PRIDE AND PREJUDICE
- Austen, Jane - SENSE AND SENSIBILITY
- Ballantyne, R. B. - THE CORAL ISLAND
- Balzac, Honore de - EUGENIE GRANDET
- Balzac, Honore de - FATHER GORIOT
- Baroness Orczy - THE SCARLET PIMPERNEL
- Barrie, James M. - PETER PAN
- Blackmore, R. D. - LORNA DOONE
- Boccaccio, Giovanni - DECAMERONE
- Bronte, Charlotte - JANE EYRE
- Bronte, Emily - WUTHERING HEIGHTS
- Buchan, John - PRESTER JOHN
- Buchan, John - THE THIRTY-NINE STEPS
- Bunyan, John - THE PILGRIM'S PROGRESS
- Burnett, Frances H. - A LITTLE PRINCESS
- Burnett, Frances H. - LITTLE LORD FAUNTLEROY
- Burnett, Frances H. - THE SECRET GARDEN
- Butler, Samuel - EREWHON
- Carroll, Lewis - ALICE IN WONDERLAND
- Carroll, Lewis - THROUGH THE LOOKING-GLASS
- Chaucer, Geoffrey - THE CANTERBURY TALES
- Chesterton, G. K. - A SHORT HISTORY OF ENGLAND
- Chesterton, G. K. - THE INNOCENCE OF FATHER BROWN
- Chesterton, G. K. - THE MAN WHO KNEW TOO MUCH
- Chesterton, G. K. - THE MAN WHO WAS THURSDAY
- Chesterton, G. K. - THE WISDOM OF FATHER BROWN
- Childers, Erskine - THE RIDDLE OF THE SANDS
- Christie, Agatha - THE MYSTERIOUSAFFAIR AT STYLES
- Christie, Agatha - THE SECRET ADVERSARY
- Collins, Wilkie - THE MOONSTONE
- Collodi, Carlo - THE ADVENTURES OF PINOCCHIO
- Conan Doyle, Arthur - A STUDY IN SCARLET
- Conan Doyle, Arthur - MEMOIRS OF SHERLOCK HOLMES
- Conan Doyle, Arthur - THE ADVENTURES OF SHERLOCK HOLMES
- Conan Doyle, Arthur - THE HOUND OF THE BASKERVILLES
- Conan Doyle, Arthur - THE SIGN OF THE FOUR
- Conrad, Joseph - HEART OF DARKNESS
- Conrad, Joseph - LORD JIM
- Conrad, Joseph - NOSTROMO
- Conrad, Joseph - THE NIGGER OF THE NARCISSUS
- Conrad, Joseph - TYPHOON
- Darwin, Charles - THE AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF CHARLES DARWIN
- Darwin, Charles - THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES
- Defoe, Daniel - MOLL FLANDERS
- Defoe, Daniel - ROBINSON CRUSOE
- Dickens, Charles - A CHRISTMAS CAROL
- Dickens, Charles - A TALE OF TWO CITIES
- Dickens, Charles - BLEAK HOUSE
- Dickens, Charles - DAVID COPPERFIELD
- Dickens, Charles - GREAT EXPECTATIONS
- Dickens, Charles - HARD TIMES
- Dickens, Charles - LITTLE DORRIT
- Dickens, Charles - MARTIN CHUZZLEWIT
- Dickens, Charles - OLIVER TWIST
- Dickens, Charles - PICTURES FROM ITALY
- Dickens, Charles - THE MYSTERY OF EDWIN DROOD
- Dickens, Charles - THE PICKWICK PAPERS
- Dostoevsky, Fyodor - CRIME AND PUNISHMENT
- Dostoyevsky, Fyodor - THE BROTHERS KARAMAZOV
- Du Maurier, George - TRILBY
- Dumas, Alexandre - THE COUNT OF MONTE CRISTO
- Dumas, Alexandre - THE MAN IN THE IRON MASK
- Dumas, Alexandre - THE THREE MUSKETEERS
- Eliot, George - ADAM BEDE
- Eliot, George - DANIEL DERONDA
- Eliot, George - MIDDLEMARCH
- Eliot, George - SILAS MARNER
- Eliot, George - THE MILL ON THE FLOSS
- Equiano - AUTOBIOGRAPHY
- Esopo - FABLES
- Fenimore Cooper, James - THE LAST OF THE MOHICANS
- Fielding, Henry - TOM JONES
- Flaubert, Gustave - MADAME BOVARY
- Frank Baum, L. - THE WONDERFUL WIZARD OF OZ
- Frazer, James George - THE GOLDEN BOUGH
- Freud, Sigmund - DREAM PSYCHOLOGY
- Galsworthy, John - THE FORSYTE SAGA
- Gilbert and Sullivan - PLAYS
- Gogol - DEAD SOULS
- Goldsmith, Oliver - SHE STOOPS TO CONQUER
- Goldsmith, Oliver - THE VICAR OF WAKEFIELD
- Grahame, Kenneth - THE WIND IN THE WILLOWS
- Hardy, Thomas - FAR FROM THE MADDING CROWD
- Hardy, Thomas - JUDE THE OBSCURE
- Hardy, Thomas - TESS OF THE D'URBERVILLES
- Hardy, Thomas - THE MAYOR OF CASTERBRIDGE
- Hawthorne, Nathaniel - THE SCARLET LETTER
- Hobbes, Thomas - LEVIATHAN
- Hope, Anthony - THE PRISONER OF ZENDA
- Hornung, E. W. - MR. JUSTICE RAFFLES
- Ibsen, Henrik - AN ENEMY OF THE PEOPLE
- Ibsen, Henrik - CASA DI BAMBOLA
- Ibsen, Henrik - GHOSTS
- Ibsen, Henrik - HEDDA GABLER
- Ibsen, Henrik - JOHN GABRIEL BORKMAN
- Ibsen, Henrik - PILLARS OF SOCIETY
- Ibsen, Henrik - ROSMERHOLM
- Ibsen, Henrik - THE LADY FROM THE SEA
- Ibsen, Henrik - THE MASTER BUILDER
- Ibsen, Henrik - WHEN WE DEAD AWAKEN
- Irving, Washington - THE LEGEND OF SLEEPY HOLLOW
- James, Henry - ITALIAN HOURS
- James, Henry - THE BOSTONIANS
- James, Henry - THE PORTRAIT OF A LADY
- James, Henry - THE TURN OF THE SCREW
- James, Henry - WASHINGTON SQUARE
- Jerome, Jerome K. - THREE MEN IN A BOAT
- Jerome, Jerome K. - THREE MEN ON THE BUMMEL
- Jonson, Ben - THE ALCHEMIST
- Jonson, Ben - VOLPONE
- Joyce, James - A PORTRAIT OF THE ARTIST AS A YOUNG MAN
- Joyce, James - DUBLINERS
- Joyce, James - ULYSSES
- Kingsley, Charles - THE WATER-BABIES
- Kipling, Rudyard - CAPTAINS COURAGEOUS
- Kipling, Rudyard - INDIAN TALES
- Kipling, Rudyard - JUST SO STORIES
- Kipling, Rudyard - KIM
- Kipling, Rudyard - THE JUNGLE BOOK
- Kipling, Rudyard - THE MAN WHO WOULD BE KING
- Kipling, Rudyard - THE SECOND JUNGLE BOOK
- Lawrence, D. H - THE RAINBOW
- Lawrence, D. H - THE WHITE PEACOCK
- Lawrence, D. H - TWILIGHT IN ITALY
- Lawrence, D. H. - SONS AND LOVERS
- Lawrence, D. H. - WOMEN IN LOVE
- Lear, Edward - BOOK OF NONSENSE
- Lear, Edward - LAUGHABLE LYRICS
- Lear, Edward - MORE NONSENSE
- Lear, Edward - NONSENSE SONG
- London, Jack - MARTIN EDEN
- London, Jack - THE CALL OF THE WILD
- London, Jack - WHITE FANG
- Malthus, Thomas - PRINCIPLE OF POPULATION
- Marryat, Captain - THE CHILDREN OF THE NEW FOREST
- Marx, Karl - THE COMMUNIST MANIFESTO
- Mary, Charles and - TALES FROM SHAKESPEARE
- Melville, Hermann - MOBY DICK
- Melville, Hermann - TYPEE
- Mrs. Beeton - THE BOOK OF HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
- Nesbit, E. - FIVE CHILDREN AND IT
- Nesbit, E. - THE PHOENIX AND THE CARPET
- Nesbit, E. - THE RAILWAY CHILDREN
- Nesbit, E. - THE STORY OF THE AMULET
- Pascal, Blaise - PENSEES
- Pellico, Silvio - LE MIE PRIGIONI
- Poe, Edgar A. - THE FALL OF THE HOUSE OF USHER
- Richardson, Samuel - PAMELA
- Rider Haggard, H. - ALLAN QUATERMAIN
- Rider Haggard, H. - KING SOLOMON'S MINES
- Schopenhauer, Arthur - THE ART OF CONTROVERSY
- Scott, Walter - IVANHOE
- Scott, Walter - QUENTIN DURWARD
- Scott, Walter - ROB ROY
- Scott, Walter - THE BRIDE OF LAMMERMOOR
- Scott, Walter - WAVERLEY
- Sewell, Anna - BLACK BEAUTY
- Shelley, Mary - FRANKENSTEIN
- Sheridan, Richard B. - THE SCHOOL FOR SCANDAL
- Sienkiewicz, Henryk - QUO VADIS
- Sterne, Laurence - A SENTIMENTAL JOURNEY
- Sterne, Laurence - TRISTRAM SHANDY
- Stevenson, Robert Louis - KIDNAPPED
- Stevenson, Robert Louis - THE BLACK ARROW
- Stevenson, Robert Louis - THE MASTER OF BALLANTRAE
- Stevenson, Robert Louis - THE STRANGE CASE OF DR. JEKYLL AND MR. HYDE
- Stevenson, Robert Louis - TREASURE ISLAND
- Stoker, Bram - DRACULA
- Strindberg, August - LUCKY PEHR
- Strindberg, August - MASTER OLOF
- Strindberg, August - THE RED ROOM
- Strindberg, August - THE ROAD TO DAMASCUS
- Strindberg, August - THERE ARE CRIMES AND CRIMES
- Swift, Jonathan - A MODEST PROPOSAL
- Swift, Jonathan - A TALE OF A TUB
- Swift, Jonathan - GULLIVER'S TRAVELS
- Thackeray, William - BARRY LYNDON
- Thackeray, William - VANITY FAIR
- Tolstoi, Lev - WAR AND PEACE
- Tolstoy, Leo - ANNA KARENINA
- Tolstoy, Leo - WAR AND PEACE
- Trollope, Anthony - BARCHESTER TOWERS
- Trollope, Anthony - THE WARDEN
- Twain, Mark - THE ADVENTURES OF HUCKLEBERRY FINN
- Twain, Mark - THE ADVENTURES OF TOM SAWYER
- Twain, Mark - THE PRINCE AND THE PAUPER
- Verne, Jules - 20000 LEAGUES UNDER THE SEAS
- Verne, Jules - A JOURNEY TO THE CENTRE OF THE EARTH
- Verne, Jules - ALL AROUND THE MOON
- Verne, Jules - AROUND THE WORLD IN 80 DAYS
- Verne, Jules - FIVE WEEKS IN A BALLOON
- Verne, Jules - MICHAEL STROGOFF
- Verne, Jules - THE MYSTERIOUS ISLAND
- Wallace, Edgar - SANDERS OF THE RIVER
- Wallace, Edgar - THE DAFFODIL MYSTERY
- Wallace, Lew - BEN HUR
- Wells, H. G. - KIPPS
- Wells, H. G. - THE INVISIBLE MAN
- Wells, H. G. - THE WAR OF THE WORLDS
- Wilde, Oscar - A WOMAN OF NO IMPORTANCE
- Wilde, Oscar - AN IDEAL HUSBAND
- Wilde, Oscar - DE PROFUNDIS
- Wilde, Oscar - LADY WINDERMERE'S FAN
- Wilde, Oscar - THE CANTERVILLE GHOST
- Wilde, Oscar - THE HAPPY PRINCE AND OTHER TALES
- Wilde, Oscar - THE IMPORTANCE OF BEING EARNEST
- Wilde, Oscar - THE PICTURE OF DORIAN GREY
- Woolf, Virgina - THE VOYAGE OUT
- Woolf, Virgina - NIGHT AND DAY
- Woolf, Virginia - LA STANZA DI JACOB
- Woolf, Virginia - MONDAY OR TUESDAY
- Yeats, William Butler - THE COUNTESS CATHLEEN
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<<< - >>> reason to believe that with all hermaphrodites two individuals, either
occasionally or habitually, concur for the reproduction of their kind.
This view was long ago doubtfully suggested by Sprengel, Knight and
Kolreuter. We shall presently see its importance; but I must here treat
the subject with extreme brevity, though I have the materials prepared
for an ample discussion. All vertebrate animals, all insects and some
other large groups of animals, pair for each birth. Modern research
has much diminished the number of supposed hermaphrodites and of real
hermaphrodites a large number pair; that is, two individuals regularly
unite for reproduction, which is all that concerns us. But still there
are many hermaphrodite animals which certainly do not habitually pair,
and a vast majority of plants are hermaphrodites. What reason, it may be
asked, is there for supposing in these cases that two individuals ever
concur in reproduction? As it is impossible here to enter on details, I
must trust to some general considerations alone.
In the first place, I have collected so large a body of facts, and made
so many experiments, showing, in accordance with the almost universal
belief of breeders, that with animals and plants a cross between
different varieties, or between individuals of the same variety but of
another strain, gives vigour and fertility to the offspring; and on the
other hand, that CLOSE interbreeding diminishes vigour and fertility;
that these facts alone incline me to believe that it is a general law
of nature that no organic being fertilises itself for a perpetuity
of generations; but that a cross with another individual is
occasionally--perhaps at long intervals of time--indispensable.
On the belief that this is a law of nature, we can, I think, understand
several large classes of facts, such as the following, which on any
other view are inexplicable. Every hybridizer knows how unfavourable
exposure to wet is to the fertilisation of a flower, yet what a
multitude of flowers have their anthers and stigmas fully exposed to the
weather! If an occasional cross be indispensable, notwithstanding that
the plant's own anthers and pistil stand so near each other as almost
to ensure self-fertilisation, the fullest freedom for the entrance of
pollen from another individual will explain the above state of exposure
of the organs. Many flowers, on the other hand, have their organs of
fructification closely enclosed, as in the great papilionaceous or
pea-family; but these almost invariably present beautiful and curious
adaptations in relation to the visits of insects. So necessary are the
visits of bees to many papilionaceous flowers, that their fertility is
greatly diminished if these visits be prevented. Now, it is scarcely
possible for insects to fly from flower to flower, and not to carry
pollen from one to the other, to the great good of the plant.
Insects act like a camel-hair pencil, and it is sufficient, to ensure
fertilisation, just to touch with the same brush the anthers of one
flower and then the stigma of another; but it must not be supposed that
bees would thus produce a multitude of hybrids between distinct species;
for if a plant's own pollen and that from another species are placed
on the same stigma, the former is so prepotent that it invariably and
<<< - >>>
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